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Interior  of  N.  C.  College  and  Station  Dairy  Barn,X)esigned  by  the  Author. 


Twin  Concrete  Silos  on  "Michels'  Stock  Farm.' 


Farming 


BY 


JOHN  MICHELS,  B.  S.  A.,  M.  S. 

Professor  of  Dairying  and  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York 
State  School  of  Agriculture 


Author  of  "Creamery  Butter-Making,"  "Market  Dairying  and 
Milk  Products,"  "Milk  and  Milk  Products  in  the  Home" 


SEVENTH  EDITION,  REVISED 


ILLUSTRATED 


FARMINGDALE.    N.   Y. 

Published  by  the  Author 

1915 

All  Rights  Reserved 


COPYRIGHT,    BY 
JOHN   MJCHELS 
1907  and  1911 


PREFACE  TO  THIRD  EDITION. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work,  the  endeavor  has  been 
to  arrange  in  a  concise  and  systematic  form  the  essential 
facts  relating  to  the  science  and  practice  of  dairy  farm- 
ing. It  embodies  the  Author's  twenty  years'  experience, 
both  as  a  practical  dairyman  and  as  a  student  and  teacher 
of  dairy  husbandry.  Technical  terms  have  been  avoided 
as  far  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  book  may  not  only 
meet  the  needs  of  the  class-room,  but  also  serve  as  a 
convenient  and  useful  handbook  for  farmers  not  versed 
in  the  sciences. 

In  preparing  the  third  edition  of  Dairy  Farming,  a 
thorough  revision  has  been  made  of  the  entire  book  and 
about  one  hundred  pages  of  new  matter  added.  The  addi- 
tion of  the  large  amount  of  important  new  matter  should 
materially  increase'  the  usefulness  of  the  book. 

The  general  adoption  of  the  book  as  a  text  and  refer- 
ence book  in  American  Dairy  Schools  and  the  warm  re- 
ception that  has  been  generally  accorded  it,  naturally  has 
been  a  source  of  much  satisfaction  to  the  author  and  has 
prompted  him  more  than  ever  to  leave  nothing  undone 
in  the  present  revision  to  make  the  book  worthy  of  the 
confidence  in  which  it  is  being  held. 


7^^5 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 


Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 

Chapter 
Chapter 
Chapter 


PART    I.      THE   DAIRY    HERD. 

Page. 

I.     Dairy  Farming  a  Profitable  Business...     7 

II.     Evolution  of  the  Dairy  Cow 9 

III.  Selection  of   Dairy  Cows n 

IV.  Selection  of  Dairy  Sires I7 

V.     Building  Up  a  Dairy  Herd 20 

VI.  Breeds  of  Dairy   Cattle 25 

VII.  Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow 33 

VIII.  Silos  and  Silage    52 

IX.  Method  of  Keeping  Herd  Records 60 

X.  Milking  68 

XI.  Herd  Management 11 

XII.  Rearing  the  Dairy  Calf 82 

XIII.  Dairy  Barn  86 

XIV.  Handling  Farm   Manure loi 

XV.  Power  on  the  Farm 106 

XVI.     Diseases  and  Ailments  of  Dairy  Cattle,  .no 

PART    II.    MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS. 

XVII.     Milk    123 

XVIII.     The  Babcock  Test  ^35 

XIX.     Bacteria  and   Milk   Fermentations 146 

XX.     Sanitary  Milk  Production i55 

XXI.     Farm   Butter-Making    165 

XXII.     Farm  Cheese-Making   '187 

XXIII.  Starters    I93 

XXIV.  Soft  and  Fancy  Cheese-Making I99 

XXV.  Cooling     and     Aeration     of     Milk     and 

Cream    205 

XXVI.     How  to  Secure  a  Good  Market 213 

XXVII.     Marketing  Milk  and  Cream 217 

XXVIII.     Ice   Cream  Making 228 

5 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Page. 

Chapter  XXIX.     Skimmilk-Buttermilk    233 

Chapter  XXX.     Certified   Milk   236 

Chapter  XXXI.     Relative  Market  Value  of  .Milk  and  Its 

Products    239 

PART    III.       SUPPLEMENT. 

Chapter        XXXII.     Valuing   Dairy    Stock 244 

Chapter       XXXIII.     Legumes  (Alfalfa  and  Clovers) 253 

Chapter       XXXIV.     The  Dairy   House    256 

Chapter         XXXV.     Washing  and  Sterilizing  Milk  Vessels.  .263 

Chapter       XXXVI.     Keeping  Accounts    269 

Chapter     XXXVII.     Water  and  Ice  Supply 274 

Chapter    XXXVIII.     Dairy   By-Products    280 

Chapter       XXXIX.     Machine   Milking    282 

Chapter  XL.     Pasteurization  of  Alilk  and  Cream 284 

Chapter  XI^I.     Calculating  Dividends 287 

Appendix 291 

Index     297 


PART  L 

THE   DAIRY   HERD. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DAIRY    FARMING   A    PROFITABLE   BUSINESS. 

That  dairy  farming  is  a  profitable  business  is  fully  at- 
tested by  its  unprecedented  growth  during  the  past 
decade  and  a  half.  No  other  branch  of  agriculture  has 
ever  witnessed  such  rapid  development  in  a  similar  period 
of  time.  Its  growth  has  not  been  confined  to  any  par- 
ticular section  or  sections  of  the  country,  but  has  been 
noticeable  in  all  sections. 

The  profits  that  have  prompted  this  rapid  and  general 
expansion  of  the  dairy  business  have  been  derived  from 
two  sources :  ( i )  direct  profits  realized  from  the  sale  of 
milk,  cream,  butter  and  cheese;  (2)  indirect  profits  ac- 
cruing from  an  increased  fertility  of  the  land  and  the  con- 
sequent increased  produ'ctiveness  of  the  same. 

Direct  Profits.  It  is  pretty  well  conceded  that  in  gen- 
eral dairy  cows  yield  greater  returns  for  feed  consumed 
than  either  swine,  sheep  or  beef  animals.  A  good  cow 
will  yield  not  less  than  300  pounds  of  butter  a  year,  which, 
at  25  cents  per  pound,  is  worth  $75.  Adding  to  this  the 
value  of  6,000  pounds  of  skim  milk  at  20  cents  per  100, 

7 


8  DAIRY   FARMING 

and  $10  as  the  value  of  the  calf,  we  have  a  total  income 
of  $97  a  year.  Subtracting  from  this  $50  as  the  average 
cost  of  the  feed,  we  have  $47  remaining  to  pay  for  the 
labor  and  interest  on  investments. 

Where  good  milk  and  cream  markets  are  available  the 
income  from  the  sale  of  milk  and  cream  may  be  actually 
double  that  from  butter  at  25  cents  per  pound.  ]More- 
over,  with  cows  of  a  higher  productive  capacity  than  that 
here  considered,  the  profits  would  be  more  than  propor- 
tionally increased. 

Indirect  Profits.  The  marvelous  growth  of  the  dairy 
industry  has  in  part  been  necessitated  by  the  need  of  con- 
serving and  increasing  the  fertility  of  lands  that  have 
been  cultivated  without  due  regard  to  maintaining  soil 
fertility.  The  selling  of  raw  products  from  the  farm, 
such  as  hay  and  grains,  has  been  a  constant  source  of  soil 
impoverishment.  This  method  of  robbing  the  soil  of  its 
natural  plant  food  has  made  farming  in  many  of  the  New 
England  and  Southern  States  well  nigh  impossible  with- 
out the  aid  of  commercial  fertilizers.  In  some  of  these 
states  as  much  as  $7,000,000  is  expended  annually  for 
these  fertilizing  materials. 

By  feeding  the  raw  materials  of  the  farm  to  dairy  cows, 
we  are  not  only  manufacturing  high  priced  products  as 
compared  with  the  value  of  the  raw  material,  but  we  are 
retaining  upon  the  farm  that  valuable  by-product,  the 
manure,  which  contains  about  75%  of  the  fertilizing  con- 
stituents originally  present  in  the  feed.  Where  only  but- 
ter is  sold,  practically  all  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  of 
the  feed  are  recovered,  since  butter  contains  scarcely  any 
fertilizing  material.  Even  where  cream  is  sold  about 
95%  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the  feed  is  retained  upon 
tlie  farm. 


CHAPTER  11. 

EVOLUTION    OF    THE   DAIRY    COW. 

The  dairy  cow  is  one  of  the  most  useful  as  well  as  one 
of  the  most  profitable  of  all  our  domestic  animals.  Her 
products  not  only  supply  an  indispensable  want  in  the 
human  dietary,  but  they  are  also  the  source  of  much  profit 
to  her  owner. 

Comparing  the  modern  cow  with  her  primitive  ances- 
tors a  most  interesting  and  instructive  evolution  in  her 
milk  giving  function  is  noted.  In  the  wild  or  primitive 
state  her  milk  production  was  confined  to  a  short  period 
following  parturition  and  was  barely  sufiicient  for  the 
support  of  the  calf.  In  her  present  form  the  amount  of 
milk  necessary  for  the  support  of  the  calf  constitutes  but 
a  small  part  of  her  total  possible  production  and  its  secre- 
tion is  almost  incessant. 

Like  the  race  horse,  the  dairy  cow  has  been  bred  and 
handled  for  a  specific  purpose  for  a  number  of  centuries. 
Continued  specialization  has  resulted  not  only  in  an 
enormous  increase  of  milk  and  butter  fat  production,  but 
as  a  result  of  such  increased  production  there  has  been 
created  a  specific  conformation  known  as  the  dairy  type. 

At  no  period  in  the  development  of  the  dairy  cow  have 
such  great  strides  been  made  as  in  the  past  half  a  cen- 
tury. Indeed,  the  period  of  general  and  systematic  im- 
provement in  the  common  stock  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  invention  of  the  Babcock  test.  Fifteen  years  ago  the 
average  butter  production  was  approximately  125  pounds 

9 


10  DAIRY   FARMING 

per  cow.  To-day  the  average  production  appoximates 
175  pounds  per  cow. 

There  are  hundreds  of  herds  scattered  over  the 
country  that  average  300  pounds  of  butter  per  cow  and 
many  herds  exceed  even  the  400  pound  mark.  Scores 
of  individual  cows  could  be  mentioned  that  have  reached 
the  600  and  700  pound  mark,  and  the  world's  champion 
cow  holds  the  phenomenal  record  of  over  1,200  pounds 
of  butter  in  one  year. 

Among  the  factors  that  have  been  instrumental  in 
bringing  about  the  remarkable  evolution  in  the  milk  pro- 
ducing function  of  rhe  cow,  the  following  are  the  most 
important:  (i)  selection,  or  breeding  only  from  the 
best  milkers;  (2)  liberal  and  judicious  feeding;  (3) 
proper  milking;  (4)  suitable  environment,  including  con- 
ditions as  to  housing  and  sanitation;  (5)  good  care  and 
management.  These  factors  will  always  continue  the 
most  important  in  the  improvement  of  our  modern  herds, 
and  will  be  discussed  in  the  chapters  which  follow. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SELECTION  OF  COWS. 

Success  in  dairying  depends  in  a  large  measure  upon 
one's  ability  to  select  the  right  animals  in  starting  and 
building  up  the  herd.  Unless  adapted  by  nature  for 
dairy  purposes,  cows  will  remain  unprofitable  in  spite  of 
the  best  feed  and  management.  The  first  lesson  the 
dairyman  has  to  learn,  therefore,  is  to  know  how  to  dis- 
criminate between  good  cows  and  poor  cows.  The 
cardinal  points  to  consider  in  the  selection  of  a  cow  are: 
(i)  butterfat  production;  (2)  type;  (3)  purity  of  breed- 
ing; (4)  pedigree;  and  (5)  health. 

BUTTERFAT  PRODUCTION. 

The  best  guide  in  the  selection  of  cows  is  the  actual 
butterfat  record  as  determined  by  a  pair  of  scales  and  a 
Babcock  tester.  It  is  not  enough  to  simply  know  the 
quantity  of  milk  yielded  by  a  cow;  one  must  also  know 
its  fat  content,  for  it  is  this  that  measures  the  value  of 
milk  for  commercial  uses  as  well  as  for  butter  and  cheese 
production. 

The  method  of  determining  the  butterfat  production 
of  cows  is  treated  in  detail  in  chapter  IX. 

CONFORMATION    OR   TYPE. 

All  dairy  experts  recognize  a  definite  type  as  associated 
with  economical  milk  production.  The  judge  in  the 
show  ring  bases  his  judgment  entirely  upon  type  or  con- 

11 


12 


DAIRY   FARMING 


formation.  While  there  still  may  be  differences  of  opin- 
ion among  breeders  as  to  minor  points,  these  are  really 
of  little  consequence.  The  points  that  go  to  make  up 
the  ideal  type  will  be  treated  under  six  heads:  (i)  dairy 
temperament;  (2)  feeding  capacity;  (3)  constitution; 
(4)  milk  organs;  (5)  quality;  and  (6)  pelvic  region. 


Fig.  1.— Points  of  a  Dairy  Cow. 
1.   Muzzle.      2.  Forehead.      3.   Neck.      4.   Withers.      5.   Back.      6.  Loins. 
7.  Hip.     8.  Pelvic  arch.     9.  Rump.     10.  Pin  bone.     II.  Shoulder.     12.  Chest. 
13.  Heart  Girth.     14.  Side.      15.  Belly.      16.  Flank.      17.  Milk  well.     18.  Milk 
vein.    19.  Fore  udder.    20.  Udder.    21.  Teats.    22.  Hind  udder.    23.  Thigh. 

Dairy  Temperament.  This  is  indicated  by  a  rather 
spare,  angular  form ;  large,  bright,  expressive  eyes,  far 
apart  and  placid ;  a  rather  long,  clean  face  slightly  dished ; 
forehead  wide  and  rather  long;  wide  juncture  of  head 
and  neck;  a  large,  straight,  prominent  backbone  with 
well  defined  spinal  processes;  ribs  and  vertebrae  wide 
apart ;  sharp  withers ;  spare,  incurving  thighs ;  and  a  high 
arching  flank :  all  of  which  indicates  strong  nerve  develop- 
ment, or  power  to  do  work. 

Feeding  Capacity.  This  is  indicated  by  a  long,  broad, 
deep,  capacious  barrel,  showing  well  sprung  ribs  diverging 
toward  the  rear;  a  broad  muzzle;  and  a  strong  jaw. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  13 

Constitution.  This  is  indicated  by  large,  bright,  clear 
eyes ;  large,  open  nostrils ;  wide,  deep  chest ;  strong  navel 
development;  strong  abdominal  walls;  absence  of  ex- 
treme refinement ;  and  a  soft,  pliable  skin  with  plenty  of 
secretion :  all  of  which  indicates  strength  and  vitality. 

A  heavy  milker  is  one  of  the  hardest  worked  of  all 
animals,  and  unless  possessed  of  a  strong  constitution, 
she  can  never  do  her  maximum  work  and  an  early  break- 
down may  be  expected. 

Milk  Organs.  These  include  a  large,  evenly  quartered, 
elastic  udder,  running  well  forward  and  well  up  behind ; 
large,  tortuous  milk  veins  running  well  forward  and 
branched;  numerous,  large,  capacious  milk  wells;  and 
medium  sized  teats,  squarely  placed,  and  far  apart. 

Large,  fleshy  udders  are  undesirable,  as  they  possess  a 
relatively  small  milk  elaborating  capacity,  and  are  more 
subject  to  disorders  than  moderately  large,  elastic  udders. 

The  milk  veins,  which  carry  the  blood  away  from  the 
udder,  are  deserving  of  careful  attention.  When  the  ori- 
fices (milk  wells)  through  which  they  enter  the  body  are 
large,  the  size  of  the  milk  veins  may  be  taken  as  a  fair 
indication  of  the  amount  of  blood  they  carry. 

A  large  flow  of  blood  away  from  the  udder  presup- 
poses a  large  flow  into  it,  and  since  milk  is  secreted  from 
the  blood,  the  quantity  which  flows  through  the  veins 
must  be  some  indication  of  milk  producing  capacity. 

Quality.  This  is  indicated  by  a  soft,  oily,  pliable  skin, 
of  medium  thickness ;  short,  soft  silky  hair ;  yellow  secre- 
tion in  the  ears ;  fine  textured  bone ;  rather  small  and 
refined  ears  and  horns ;  yellowish  wax  at  the  base  of  the 
horns ;  and  a  general  absence  of  coarseness  in  any  part. 

Pelvic  Region.  This  should  be  large  to  afford  room 
for  the  calf,  especially  during  its  delivery.    A  good  pelvic 


14  DAIRY   FARMING 

region  is  indicated  by  a  high,  long,  broad  rump,  broad 
hips  and  loins,  and  good  width  between  the  pin  bones. 

Additional  observations  on  type  should  be  directed 
to  the  following:  Shoulder,  free  from  flesh  and  rather 
sharp  at  the  withers ;  tail,  long  and  refined ;  hocks,  clean, 
well  apart,  and  pointing  straight  backward,  giving  roomi- 
ness for  the  udder;  front  legs,  straight  and  well  apart, 
with  toes  pointing  directly  forward. 

The  escutcheon,  which  refers  to  the  rear  portion  of  the 
animal  where  the  hair  turns  up,  was  the  subject  of  con- 
siderable study  by  a  Frenchman  named  Quenon,  who 
regarded  the  size  and  shape  of  it  as  the  chief  indication 
of  merit  in  dairy  cows.  At  the  present  time,  however, 
very  little  importance  is  attached  to  this  point. 

PURITY   OF  BREEDING. 

Selection  is  based  upon  the  law  that  "like  produces 
like."  According  to  this  law  the  characters  of  the  par- 
ents are  transmitted  to  the  offspring  with  a  greater  or 
less  degree  of  certainty.  The  purer  the  breeding  of  the 
parents  the  greater  the  certainty  of  such  transmission. 
Thus,  for  example,  one  can  figure  with  much  certainty 
that  the  progeny  of  pure-bred  parents  of  the  same  breed 
will  resemble  its  parents  in  all  essential  characteristics. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  certainty  whatever  that  the 
off-spring  of  parents  of  promiscuous  breeding  will  resem- 
ble its  parents,  either  in  important  or  unimportant  particu- 
lars.  It  may  be  like  them  or  it  may  be  totally  unlike  them. 

It  is  the  long  period  of  breeding  along  one  line  without 
admixture  of  foreign  blood  that  gives  the  pure-bred 
animal  the  superior  power  of  transmitting  its  qualities  to 
its  offspring,  a  power  which  is  known  as  prepotency.  In 
the  building  up  of  a  dairy  herd  it  is  of  the  highest  im- 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  IS 

portance  to  have  animals  which  transmit  their  quahties 
to  their  offspring-  with  a  high  degree  of  certainty,  and  it 
is  for  this  reason  that  pure-bred  animals  are  so  much  pre- 
ferred to  those  of  promiscuous  breeding. 

PEDIGREE. 

A  pedigree  is  a  recorded  statement  of  the  ancestry  of 
an  animal.  It  is  furnished  in  many  cases  simply  as  a 
guarantee  of  purity  of  breeding.  Its  real  value,  however, 
is  determined  by  the  merit  of  the  animals  which  it  repre- 
sents. A  300  pound  butter  cow  with  an  unbroken  list  of 
noted  dairy  performers  back  of  her  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  a  300  pound  cow  among  whose  ancestors  some 
inferior  individuals  are  found,  and  especially  if  the  infer- 
ior individuals  are  near  ancestors. 

While,  generally,  pedigreed  animals  are  much  to  be 
preferred  to  those  of  promiscuous  breeding,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  all  pedigreed  animals  are  desirable. 
Far  from  it.  There  probably  are  now-a-days  as  many  poor 
pedigreed  dairy  animals  as  good  ones.  *' Scrubs"  are 
found  among  pedigreed  cows  just  as  they  are  found 
among  common  or  native  cows,  though  of  course  far 
less  frequently. 

The  reason  of  the  existence  of  inferior  individuals 
among  pure-bred  dairy  animals  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
eligibility  to  registration  in  most  cases  is  not  based  upon 
production  or  individual  excellence,  but  upon  purity  of 
breeding.  This  fact  has  made  it  possible  for  many 
animals  to  enter  the  herd  register  which,  by  nature,  were 
fit  only  for  the  shambles.  In  the  purchase  of  pure-bred 
stock,  therefore,  no  judicious  selection  can  be  made  from 
a  mere  list  of  names  of  individuals,  no  matter  how  long 
this  list  is  or  how  "high  sounding"  the  names  it  contains 


16  DAIRY   FARMING 

may  be.  One  must  know  the  production  and  individual 
excellence  of  the  animals  represented  in  the  pedigree. 
The  greatest  stress  should  be  laid  upon  the  near  or 
immediate  ancestry  of  the  animal  under  consideration. 

Fortunately  there  is  what  is  known  as  an  advanced 
registry,  or  register  of  merit,  the  basis  of  admission  to 
which,  in  addition  to  pure  breeding,  is  the  merit  of  the 
individuals  as  dairy  performers.  It  is  much  to  be  hoped 
that  this  method  of  registration  will  soon  replace  entirely 
the  common  method  whose  sole  requisite  for  registration 
is  purity  of  breeding. 

HEALTH  OF  ANIMALS. 

The  prevalence  of  tuberculosis,  contagious  abortion, 
and  other  diseases,  makes  it  imperative  to  make  the  matter 
of  health  an  important  consideration  in  the  selection  of 
dairy  animals.  Indeed  diseased  animals,  no  matter  how 
valuable  in  other  respects,  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from 
the  herd. 

It  is  the  height  of  folly  to  select  dairy  animals  without 
making  rigid  inquiry  as  to  their  freedom  from  tuber- 
culosis and  contagious  abortion.  Yet  there  are  many  who 
do  not  even  inquire  about  these  and  other  diseases,  much 
less  make  investigation  such,  for  example,  as  a  tuber- 
culin test. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SELECTION   OF  DAIRY  SIRES. 

The  importance  of  the  dairy  sire  is  recognized  in  the 
expression,  "The  bull  is  half  the  herd."  Usually,  how- 
ever, the  bull  is  more  than  half  the  herd,  either  for  good 
or  bad.  In  the  case  of  common  or  grade  cows,  for 
example,  the  pure-bred  bull  may  count  for  three-quarters 
or  more  of  the  herd,  by  reason  of  his  greater  prepotency. 
To  so  great  an  extent  does  the  bull  determine  the  improve- 
ment or  deterioration  of  the  herd  as  to  call  for  the  utmost 
caution  in  his  selection,  which  should  be  based  upon  the 
following:  (i)  purity  of  breeding;  (2)  pedigree;  (3) 
t}'pe;  (4)  prepotency;  and  (5)  health. 

Purity  of  Breeding.  Under  no  circumstances  should 
anything  but  pure-bred  sires  be  used.  The  value  of  purity 
of  breeding  has  already  been  discussed  under  the  selection 
of  the  dairy  cow.  It  should  be  understood,  however, 
that  purity  of  breeding  is  of  greater  consequence  in  bulls 
than  in  cows,  for  the  reason  that  improvement  in  the  herd 
is  usually  expected  to  be  brought  about  through  the  dairy 
sire. 

Pedigree.  In  the  case  of  a  dairy  bull,  especially  a 
young  bull,  his  chief  value  is  determined  by  the  perform- 
ance of  his  ancestry.  The  points  of  greatest  importance 
to  consider  in  his  pedigree  are  the  following:  (i)  the 
merit  of  his  mother  and  his  sire's  mother;  (2)  the  merit 
of  the  daughters  of  his  sire  and  grand  sire;  (3)  the 
value  of  the  daughters  of  his  dam  and  his  grand-dam; 

17 


18  DAIRY   1' ARMING 

(4)  the  value  of  his  sisters,  if  he  has  any;  and  (5)  the 
value  of  his  own  progeny,  if  he  has  any. 

The  further  back  consecutively  good  records  can  be 
traced  the  more  valuable  the  animal.  It  should  always 
be  remembered,  however,  that  near  ancestors  count  for 
a  great  deal  more  than  those  more  remotely  related. 

Type.  The  external  qualities  of  a  good  sire  are  indi- 
cated by  a  masculine  head  and  neck;  bright,  prominent 
eyes,  far  apart;  a  strong,  sinewy  jaw;  broad  muzzle; 
wide  open  nostrils;  deep,  broad  chest;  deep,  capacious 
barrel ;  soft,  loose,  oily  hide,  of  medium  thickness ;  clean 
bone;  large  rudimentary  teats,  squarely  placed  and  far 
apart;  and  a  general  spareness  of  flesh,  especially  in  the 
region  of  the  shoulders,  thighs,  and  hips.  Indeed,  from 
the  shoulders  backw^ard,  the  dairy  bull  should  have  the 
same  general  outline  as  that  possessed  by  the  dairy  cow. 
He  should  have  a  strong,  resolute  appearance  and  an 
active  style,  showing  that  abundance  of  vigor  so  neces- 
sary in  a  good  breeder. 

Prepotency.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  this  term 
signifies  the  power  which  an  animal  possesses  of  trans- 
mitting its  own  qualities  to  its  offspring.  The  possession 
of  this  power  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  a  dairy  bull, 
for  it  matters  little  how  good  a  pedigree  or  how  fine  an 
individuality  he  may  have,  if  he  lacks  in  the  power  of 
transmission  he  is  a  failure.  Prepotency  in  an  animal 
increases  with  the  purity  and  closeness  of  breeding,  and 
is  indicated  to  some  extent  by  a  strong,  resolute,  vigorous 
appearance,  reflecting  a  strong  constitution  and  an 
abundance  of  nerve  development. 

The  full  extent,  however,  to  which  a  sire  is  prepotent 
can  be  determined  with  certainty  only  from  his  offspring. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  19 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  a  middle-aged  bull  is  so  much 
more  desirable  than  a  young,  untried  bull. 

A  bull  with  descendants  is  always  the  safest  animal 
for  the  purchaser  to  buy.  Nothing  can  speak  more  for  a 
bull  than  the  satisfactory  performance  of  his  offspring. 

Health.  Everything  that  has  been  said  with  reference 
to  health  in  the  selection  of  cows  (p.  i6)  applies  with 
equal  force  to  dairy  sires. 


CHAPTER  V. 

BUILDING    UP    A    DAIRY    HE;RD. 

I.      PRIXCIPLES   INVOLVED. 
II.      STARTING  THE    HERD. 
III.      BREEDING  UP  THE    HERD. 

I.      PRINCIPLES  INVOLVED. 

Underlying  Law.  The  success  in  building  up  a  dairy 
herd  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  one's  abihty  to  select 
individuals  with  reference  to  the  points  considered  in  the 
preceding  two  chapters;  that  is,  the  ability  to  make  a 
judicious  selection  of  both  males  and  females.  To  em- 
phasize more  fully  the  importance  of  rigid  selection  it 
should  be  remembered  that  all  selection  is  based  upon 
the  law  that  "like  produces  like,"  or  that  the  offspring 
will  be  like  the  parents.  The  essence  of  this  law  is  that 
good  milkers  will  produce  good  milkers  and  poor  milkers 
will  produce  poor  milkers. 

The  uniformity  with  which  this  law  operates  is  depend- 
ent upon  three  things  :  ( i )  purity  of  breeding ;  (2)  close- 
ness of  blood  relationship;  and  (3)  similarity  of  parents. 

Purity  of  Breeding.  The  purer  the  breeding  the 
greater  the  certaint}-  with  which  animals  will  transmit 
their  own  characteristics  to  their  offspring.     See  p.   14. 

Closeness  of  Blood  Relationship.  The  characters  of 
parents  of  the  same  strain  will  reappear  in  the  progeny 
with  greater  regularity  than  those  of  parents  of  different 
strains  in  the  same  breed.  This  fact  is  recognized  in 
in-and-in  breeding,   which   is   an   attempt  to  secure  and 

20 


THE   DAIRY  HERD  21 

speedily  fix  desirable  characters  by  close  breeding.  In- 
and-in  breeding  can  be  practiced  with  success,  however, 
only  in  the  hands  of  skilled  breeders. 

In  the  case  of  crossing  one  breed  upon  another  as,  for 
example,  a  Holstein-Friesian  upon  a  Jersey,  it  is  often 
mistakenly  supposed  that  the  progeny  of  such  a  cross 
partakes  equally  of  the  characters  of  both  parents.  This 
may  occur  in  some  instances,  but  more  often  the  offspring 
will  resemble  either  one  parent  or  the  other,  or  neither. 
But  even  where  the  offspring  does  partake  equally  of  the 
characters  of  both  parents,  such  a  cross'  is  undesirable 
because  the  offspring  is  not  capable  of  transmitting  its 
characteristics  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  In  the  hands 
of  the  average  dairyman  transmission  in  crossing  is  uncer- 
tain and  unsatisfactory,  and  for  this  reason  crossing 
should  not  be  attempted. 

When  a  cow  of  nondescript  or  promiscuous  breeding  is 
bred  to  a  pure-bred  sire,  the  progeny  will  largely  partake 
of  the  characters  of  the  sire,  by  reason  of  his  greater 
prepotency.  With  what  degree  of  regularity  and  to  what 
extent  this  occurs  depends  upon  the  degree  of  prepotency. 
The  offspring  of  a  highly  prepotent  sire  and  a  common  or 
native  cow  will  take  on  nearly  all  the  essential  character- 
istics of  the  sire.  In  such  a  case  it  is  plainly  seen  that  the 
sire  counts  for  a  great  deal  more  than  half  the  herd. 

In  the  case  of  grade  cows  the  influence  of  the  pure- 
bred bull  becomes  less  the  closer  the  grade  approaches 
purity  of  blood.  But- only  in  the  case  where  the  cows  are 
pure-bred,  or  more  strictly  of  equal  prepotency  with  the 
bull,  can  it  be  said  that  the  bull  is  only  half  the  herd. 

Similarity  of  Parents.  In  mating  animals  it  should 
always  be  remembered  that  the  greater  the  similarity  of  all 
their   characteristics  the   greater  the  certainty   of  trans- 


22  DAIRY  FARMING 

mission.  Where  animals  of  great  extremes  of  size,  con- 
formation, function,  disposition,  or  nervous  organization, 
are  mated,  somewhat  the  same  resuhs  may  be  looked  for 
that  are  obtained  in  crossing  animals  of  different  breeds. 
Mating  animals  of  highly  dissimilar  characteristics  is 
spoken  of  as  violent  mating  and  should  be  avoided. 
Where  there  is  much  similarity  in  the  parents  there  is 
usually  a  satisfactory  transmission  of  qualities  and  the 
mating  is  often  referred  to  as  good  "nicking." 

II.     STARTING  THE  HERD. 

Grade  Cows  and  Pure=bred  Sires.  With  the  average 
farmer,  the  cheapest  and  most  satisfactory  way  of  start- 
ing a  dairy  herd  is  to  select  as  foundation  stock  good 
grade  cows  and  a  pure-bred  bull  of  one  of  the  strictly 
dairy  breeds.  The  grading  up  will  be  most  rapid  when 
the  predominant  blood  in  the  grades  corresponds  with  the 
blood  of  the  sire. 

A  foundation  of  this  kind,  of  course,  does  not  produce 
stock  that  can  be  registered,  but  by  continuing  the  use  of 
good,  pure-bred  bulls  of  the  same  blood,  stock  is  soon 
obtained  which,  so  far  as  milk  and  butter  production  is 
concerned,  very  closely  approaches  in  value  that  of  pure 
breeding. 

Pure=Bred  Cows  and  Sires.  To  start  with  a  pure- 
bred herd  is  practically  beyond  the  means  of  the  ma- 
jority of  farmers.  Furthermore,  there  is  an  objection 
to  placing  well-cared- for,  pure-bred  cows  under  aver- 
age conditions  as  to  feed,  care,  and  management,  be- 
cause under  any  such  change  the  attainment  of  satis- 
factory results  would  be  practically  impossible.  Where 
there  is  a  gradual  infusion  of  pure  blood,  as  in  the 
case   of   grading   up   a    herd    with    pure-bred   sires    the 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  23 

new  blood  is  gradually  accustomed  to  the  change  of 
environment  and  the  herdsman  is  given  the  necessary 
time  to  change  his  methods  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
pure-bred  cattle. 

Where  the  dairyman  understands  the  management 
of  pure-bred  stock  and  has  the  means  with  which  to 
purchase  the  right  kind,  a  pure-bred  herd  may  be  started 
to  good  advantage. 

One  of  the  chief  dangers  in  starting  with  a  pure- 
bred herd  is  the  lack  of  funds  to  procure  the  right  sort 
of  animals.  Instead  of  purchasing  a  pure-bred  bull  and 
a  number  of  pure-bred  cows  of  common  merit,  it  is  better 
policy  to  buy  relatively  cheap,  grade  cows,  and  to  add  the 
money  thus  saved  to  that -originally  set  aside  for  the  bull. 
This  extra  money  is  likely  to  be  the  means  of  securing  a 
bull  of  outstanding  merit. 

III.    bre:e;ding  up  the:  herd. 

Importance  of  Sire.  Whether  the  cows  be  grades  or 
pure-breds,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance  in  building  up 
a  dairy  herd  to  secure  a  pure-bred  bull  of  outstanding 
dairy  merit.  Unless  the  bull  is  descended  from  good  milk- 
ers it  is  folly  to  expect  him  to  produce  good  milkers,  no 
matter  how  fine  or  ideal  he  may  be  as  an  individual. 

It  is,  furthermore,  of  importance  to  remember  that  a 
herd  cannot  be  successfully  built  up  unless  the  bulls  that 
are  successively  used  belong  to  the  same  breed.  If  the 
grading  up  is  begun  with  a  Jersey  bull  the  process  must 
be  continued  uninterruptedly  by  the  use  of  Jersey  blood. 

In  the  selection  of  a  herd  bull  the  points  discussed  in 
the  preceding  chapter  should  be  carefully  considered. 

Selecting  the  Best  Calves.  W^ith  a  first-class  bull  at 
the  head  of  the  herd,  rapid  improvement  is  effected  by 


24  DAIRY   FARMING 

selecting  and  retaining  calves  from  only  the  best  milkers, 
at  the  same  time  culling  out  those  cows  whose  records 
have  not  been  satisfactory.  This  w^ork  cannot  be  done  to 
best  advantage  unless  records  are  kept  of  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  milk  from  each  cow  for  a  whole  lactation 
period,  as  discussed  in  chapter  IX. 

Buying  Cows.  Where  all  of  the  cows  in  the  founda- 
tion stock  are  grades,  none  of  the  calves,  of  course,  can 
be  registered.  It  is  desirable,  therefore,  to  add  to  the 
herd  from  time  to  time,  as  means  permit,  some  good 
pure-bred  cows  of  the  same  blood  as  the  bulls  that  have 
been  used.  This  has  the  advantage  of  enabling  the  owner 
to  dispose  of  his  calves  to  better  advantage. 

The  purchase  of  cows,  however,  is  always  attended  with 
the  danger  of  introducing  contagious  diseases  into  the 
herd,  especially  tuberculosis  and  contagious  abortion. 
For  this  reason  the  purchasing  of  cows  should  be  carried 
on  in  a  limited  way  only.  It  is,  of  course,  always  in  order 
to  buy  cows  when  the  object  is  to  add  to  the  herd  pure- 
bred individuals  of  exceptional  dairy  merit.  But  the 
practice  of  buying  cows  should  never  be  carried  to  the 
point  of  making-  it  the  principal  means  of  replenishing  the 
herd,  especially  since  the  latter  can  be  accomplished 
much  more  satisfactorily  by  raising  the  calves  from  the 
best  cows. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BREEDS  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE. 
JERSEY   CATTLE. 

The  native  home  of  this  breed  is  the  Island  of  Jersey, 
situated  off  the  coast  of  Fran(5e.  and  comprising  28,717 


26 


DAIRY    FARMING 


acres.  The  climate  is  very  mild  and  healthful,  and  the 
soil  is  very  productive.  Here  the  Jersey  cattle  have  been 
bred  pure  for  a  number  of  centuries. 


Characteristics.  The  color  of  Jerseys  is  usually  some 
shade  of  fawn.  Cream,  dun  and  yellow  are  common,  and 
these  are  frequently  mixed  with  white.     In  form  Jerseys 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


27 


are  spare,  possessing  a  rather  large  barrel,  a  refined  head 
and  neck,  and  fine,  clean-cut  limbs.  In  size  they  are  small 
to  medium,  the  average  weight  of  cows  being  probably 
somewhat  less  than  900  pounds.  The  quantity  of  milk 
produced  by  Jerseys  is,  as  a  rule,  not  very  large,  but  the 
milk  is  very  rich,  making  them  excellent  butter  producers. 
The  color  of  the  milk  and  butter  is  a  pleasing,  rich  yellow. 

GUERNSEY   CATTLE. 

The  native  home  of  this  breed  is  the  Island  of  Guern- 
sey, situated  near  the  Island  of  Jersey,  and,  like  it,  is  one 


Fig.  4. — Typical  Guerusey  ij 


of  the  group  of  islands  known  as  the  Channel  Islands.  In 
size  the  Island  of  Guernsey  ranks  next  to  that  of  Jersey. 
Its  climate  is  verv  mild  and  healthful  and  the  soil  is  pro- 


28 


DAIRY   FARMING 


ductive.     Guernsey  cattle  have  been  bred  pure  for  a  long 
period  of  time. 

Characteristics.  Guernsey  cattle  are  larger,  stronger 
in  frame  and  constitution,  and  in  general  more  rugged 
than  Jerseys.  A  noted  characteristic  of  this  breed  is  the. 
very  rich,  yellow  color  of  the  milk  and  skin.  Their  pre- 
dominant color  is  a  reddish  fawn,  with  more  or  less  white 


Fig.  5.— Typical  Guernsey  Cow.     Dolly  Dimple. 


markings.  Colors  bordering  on  a  yellowish  or  brownish 
fawn  with  white  markings,  are  also  common.  The 
cows  average  probably  somewhat  more  than  i,ooo  pounds 
in  weight.  They  average  a  fairly  large  yield  of  milk, 
which  is  practically  as  rich  as  that  produced  by  Jerseys. 
Guernseys  are  also  noted  for  their  quiet,  gentle  disposi- 
tion. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


29 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  CATTLE. 

The  native  home  of  this  breed  is  Holland,  where  it 
has  existed  for  many  centuries.  The  low,  level,  rich  lands 
reclaimed  from  the  sea,  furnish  an  abundance  of  grazing 


30 


DAIRY   FARMING 


and  have  given  rise  to  a  large  breed  of  cattle.   The  winters 
of  Holland  are  rather  cold  but  not  severe. 

Characteristics.        The    Holstein-Friesian    cattle    are 
white  and  black  in  color,  have  large,  strong  frames,  and 


easily  stand  at  the  head  in  size  and  quantity  of  milk 
yielded.  The  average  weight  of  the  cows  approxi- 
mates 1,300  pounds.  While  noted  for  their  phenomenal 
milk  yields,  the  milk  averages  rather  low  in  per  cent  of 


..BcrD-TV  nF 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


31 


butterfat,  being  lower  than  that  of  any  other  dairy  breed. 
The  udders  and  milk  veins  in  this  breed  are  conspicuously 
large.  The  shoulders  are  rather  prominent  and  the  hind 
quarters  as  a  rule,  are  rather  thick  and  straight. 


AYRSHIRE  CATTI.E. 

The  native  home  of  this  breed  is  Ayr  county,  Scot- 
land, from  which  place  the  breed  derives  its  name.    The 


pastures  are  good,  but  the  climate  is  rather  severe  and 
rough,  giving  this  breed  a  high  degree  of  hardiness. 


32 


DAIRY   FARMING 


Characteristics.  The  Ayrshire  cattle  are  a  rather 
hardy,  rugged  breed,  of  medium  size,  the  average  weight 
being  about  i,ooo  pounds.  They  have  a  deep  capacious 
barrel,  and  the  hind  quarters  are  inclined  to  be  fleshy. 
In  color  they  may  be  red,  white,  or  brown,  or  a  mixture  of 
these,  each  color  being  well  defined.  The  cows  give  a 
good  yield  of  milk  containing  an  average  per  cent  of 
butterfat.    Their  udders  possess  a  high  state  of  perfection. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FEEDING  THE  DAIRY  COW, 

I.      PRINCIPLES    OF    FEEDING. 
II.      PRACTICE  OF   FEEDING. 
III.      FEEDING  TABLES. 

I.     PRINCIPLES  OF  FEEDING. 

No  phase  of  the  dairy  industry  has  received  so  much 
attention  in  recent  years  as  that  relating  to  the  principles 
and  practice  of  feeding.  We  have  come  to  learn  that 
certain  underlying  principles  must  be  observed  if  any- 
thing like  a  full  measure  of  success  is  to  be  achieved. 
The  first  lesson  of  the  student  in  stock  feeding  concerns 
itself  with  the  following  particulars  regarding  feeds  :  ( i ) 
composition;  (2)  digestibility;  (3)  succulence  and  pal- 
atability;  (4)  proportion  of  nitrogenous  and  non-nitro- 
genous nutrients;  (5)  proportion  of  roughage*  and  con- 
centratesf ;  and  (6)  fertilizing  constituents. 

Composition.  A  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
feeds  is  necessary  for  two  reasons:  First,  to  enable  the 
feeder  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  the  feeds  at  his 
disposal;  and  secondly,  to  assist  in  determining  what 
quantity  of  feed  is  necessary  to  supply  the  required 
amount  of  nutrients. 

In  studying  the  composition  of  feeds  we  must  first  of 
all  familiarize  ourselves  with  three  important  groups  of 


*Roughage  includes  the  coarser  and  less  nutritious  feeds,  such  as  hay, 
straw,  corn  fodder,  corn  silage,  etc. 

tConcentrates  include  the  more  nutritious  feeds,  such  as  corn,  wheat  bran, 
cotton  seed  meal,  etc. 

33 


34 


DAIRY   f ARMING 


nutrients  found  in  all  feed  stuffs ;  namely,  protein,  car- 
bohydrates and  ether  extract. 

Protein  is  the  nitrogenous  part  of  feeds  and  is  by  far 
the  most  valuable  of  the  different  groups  of  nutrients 
Its  characteristic  element  is  nitrogen.  The  white  of  egg 
is  almost  pure  protein.  Cottonseed  meal  and  linseed 
meal  are  very  rich  in  protein,  and  so  are  leguminous  havs, 
such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpea  hay. 

Carbohydrates  contain  no  nitrogen  but  are  made  up 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  containing  the  latter 
two  elements  in  the  proportion  to  form  water.  Sugar  and 
starch  are  almost  pure  carbohydrates.  Crude  fiber  is 
another  carbohydrate,  which  constitutes  the  woody,  fibrous 
part  of  plants. 

Ether  extract  is  the  part  of  feeds  extracted  by  means 
of  ether,  and  consists  largely  of  fats  or  oils.  This  group 
of  nutrients  bears  a  close  similarity  to  carbohydrates, 
both  in  composition  and  in  function ;  but  owing  to  its 
higher  carbon  content,  its  fuel  value  is  2.25  times  that  of 
carbohydrates.  Cotton  seed  and  flax  seed  are  very  rich 
in  ether  extract. 

Dry  matter,  as  the  term  signifies,  is  the  feed  minus  its 
water. 

The  variation  in  nutrients  in  different  feeds  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following  table : 

TABLE  I.  Showing  variation  in  nutrients  in  dift'erent 
feeds. 


Dry 
maiterin 
100  pounds. 

Total  nutrients  in  100  pounds. 

Feed. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 
Lbs. 

Ether 

extract. 

Lbs. 

Wheat  bran 

88.1 
91.8 
89.4 
20.9 
69  5 
84.7 

15.4 

42.3 

10.3 

1.7 

3.8 
12  3 

62.9 
29.2 
72  6 
17.0 
52.2 
62.9 

4.0 

Cottonseed  meal 

Corn 

13.1 
5.0 

Corn  silage 

0  8 

Corn  stover  ...    . 

1  1 

Clover  hay  (red) 

3.3 

THE    DAIRY    HERD 


35 


The  table  shows  that  feeds  differ  very  widely  in  the 
amount  of  nutrients  the}-  contain,  especially  in  protein, 
the  most  valuable  portion  of  feeds. 

Digestibility.  While  the  total  nutrients  give  some 
idea  as  to  the  relative  value  of  different  feeds,  it  is  of  far 
greater  importance  to  know  the  total  digestible  nutrients 
as  determined  by  actual  digestion  experiments  with 
animals.  That  feeds  differ  widely  in  degree  of  digest- 
ibility is  shown  in  the  following  table  which  contains  the 
same  list  of  feeds  given  in  Table  I. 


TABLE  11. 
different  feeds. 


Showing  variation  in  the  digestibility  of 


Dry 
matter  in 
100  pounds. 

Total  digestible  nutrients  in 
100  pounds. 

Feed. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Lbs. 

Ether 
extract. 

Lbs. 

Wheat  bran            

88.1 
91.8 
89.1 
20.9 
59.5 
84.7 

12.2 
37  2 

7.9 
0.9 
1.7 

6.8 

39.2 
16.9 
66.7 
11.3 
32.4 
35.8 

2.7 

Cottonseed  meal 

12.2 

Corn 

4.3 

Corn  silage 

0.7 

Corn  stover 

Clover  hay  (red) 

0.7 
1.7 

Comparing  this  table  with  Table  I,  we  note  that  the 
digestibility  of  the  protein,  for  example,  in  corn  stover, 
clover  hay  and  cottonseed  meal  is  44%.  55%  s"^ 
88%  respectively.  These  figures  suffice  to  show  the  need 
of  knowing,  not  so  much  the  total  nutrients,  as  the  total 
digestible  nutrients  in  feed  stuffs. 

Succulence  and  Palatability.  The  amount  of  digest- 
ible nutrients  does  not  always  measure  the  feeding  value 


36  DAIRY   FARMIM; 

of  feed  stuffs.  Palatability  must  also  be  considered. 
Moreover,  experience  has  amply  demonstrated  that  for 
best  results  in  milk  production,  a  certain  amount  of  suc- 
culent feed  must  be  fed  as  a  part  of  the  ration.  Corn 
silage,  which  is  so  highly  prized  by  dairymen,  probably 
owes  its  high  rank  as  a  dairy  feed  nearly  as  much  to  its 
succulence  and  palatability  as  to  the  nutrients  which  it 
contains. 

Proportion  of  Nitrogenous  to  Non=Nitrogenous 
Nutrients.  In  the  production  of  milk,  only  the  protein 
or  nitrogenous  part  of  the  feed  can  be  utilized  for  the 
production  of  the  protein  or  nitrogenous  part  of  the  milk. 
The  non-nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  milk  are  largely, 
if  not  entirely,  produced  from  the  non-nitrogenous  con- 
stituents of  the  feed,  namely,  the  carbohydrates  and  ether 
extract. 

From  this  it  must  be  obvious  that  the  best  results  in 
feeding  can  be  obtained  only  from  a  proper  balancing  of 
the  nutrients  fed.  Moreover,  since  the  dififerent  nutrients 
are  largely  to  be  converted  into  milk,  it  is  evident  also 
that  the  quantity  which  can  be  advantageously  fed  must 
be  gauged  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  milk  produced. 
Hence  feeders  have  come  to  adopt  what  is  known  as 
balanced  rations  or  feeding  standards. 

Feeding  Standards.  These  refer  to  the  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  required  per  i,ooo  pounds  of  live 
weight  in  twenty-four  hours.  They  recognize  that  the 
nutrients  fed  must  be  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  milk  yielded.  This  is  shown  by  the  Wolff- 
Lehman  standards  presented  in  the  following  table: 


THH    DAIRY    HHRi) 


37 


TABLE  III.     Showing  Wolff-Lehman  feeding  stand- 
ards. 


Daily  milk 

yield. 
Average 
quality. 

Lbs. 

Dry 

matter. 

Lbs. 

Digestible  nutrients  per  1,000 
pounds  live  weight. 

Ration. 

Protein. 
Lbs. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Lbs. 

Ether 
extract. 

Lbs. 

No.  1 

11.0 
16.6 
22.0 
27.5 

25 
27 
29 
32 

1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 

10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 

0.3 

No.  2... 

0.4 

No.  8 

0.5 

No.  4 

0.8 

The  standard  that  has  generally  been  used  as  a  guide 
by  feeders  is  that  for  ration  No.  3.  Researches  during 
recent  years  have  shown,  however,  that  the  Wolff-Leh- 
man standard  calls  for  too  much  protein.  These  re- 
searches make  it  quite  clear  that  the  amount  of  protein 
required  for  22  pounds  of  average  quality  milk  is 
nearer  two  pounds  than  two  and  a  half  pounds,  and  until 
the  matter  is  definitely  settled,  it  may  be  well  to  adopt 
two  and  one-fourth  pounds  of  protein  as  the  standard 
for  the  milk  yield  referred  to. 

Feeding  Standards  as  Guides.  Standards  for  bal- 
anced rations  should  always  be  used  with  considerable 
flexibility.  They  should  be  looked  upon  only  as  guides 
and  as  such  are  exceedingly  useful.  Every  practical 
feeder  knows  that  the  influence  of  individuality  counts  for 
much  in  the  feeding  of  dairy  cattle.  A  ration  that  may  be 
satisfactory  for  one  cow  may  not  be  suited  to  another. 

We  have  also  to  consider  the  source  of  the  nutrients. 
It  is  known  that  the  digestible  nutrients  in  coarse  feeds 
yield   smaller   returns,   pound   for   pound,   than  those  in 


38  DAIRY   FARMING 

grains.  Then  again  the  matter  of  proportioning  the 
quantity  of  nutrients  to  the  weight  of  the  animal  can  at 
best  give  only  approximate  results.  The  actual  milk  and 
butterfat  production  must  always  remain  the  principal 
factor  in  determining  the  quantity  of  nutrients  required 
by  the  dairy  cow. 

Calculating  Rations.  By  a  ration  is  meant  the  amount 
of  feed  required  by  an  animal  in  twenty-four  hours. 
The  method  of  compounding  rations  consists  in  selecting 
from  the  feeds  at  our  disposal  such  quantities  as  will  con- 
tain the  amount  of  nutrients  called  for  by  the  standard. 
To  illustrate,  let  us  make  up  a  ration  for  a  cow  yielding 
daily  22  pounds  of  milk  of  average  quality,  using  the 
Wolff-Lehman  standard  (p.  2>7)'  The  feeds  at  our  dis- 
posal are  wheat  bran,  cottonseed  meal,  corn  meal,  corn 
silage,  corn  stover  and  clover  hay. 

By  a  number  of  trial  calculations  we  find  that  the 
required  nutrients  are  obtained  by  selecting  9  lbs.  of 
wheat  bran,  4  lbs.  of  corn,  i  lb.  of  cottonseed  meal,  5  lbs. 
of  corn  stover,  5  lbs.  of  clover  hay  and  30  lbs.  of  corn 
silage.  The  calculation  is  made  from  Table  II  (p.  35)  in 
the  manner  shown  below : 

Amt.  in 

100  lbs. 

Protein  in  9  lbs.  bran  =  12.2  x  .09  =  1.098  lbs. 

Protein  in  1  lb.  cotton  seed  meal        =  37.2  x  .01  =  0.372  lbs. 

Protein  in  4  lbs.  corn  =     7.9  x  .04  =  0.316  lbs. 

Protein  in  30  lbs.  corn  silage  =    0.9  x  .30  =  0.270  lbs. 

Protein  in  5  lbs.  corn  stover  =     1.7  x  .05  =  0.085  lbs 

Protein  in  5  lbs.  clover  hay  =    6.8  x  .05  =  0.340  lbs. 


Total  protein        =  2.481  lbs. 
Standard        =  2.50     lbs. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  39 

Amt.  in 

100  lbs. 

Carbohydrates  in  9  lbs.  bran                =  39.2  x  .09  =  3.528  lbs. 

Carbohydrates  in  1  lb.  c.  s.  meal        =  16.9  x  .01  =  0.169  lbs. 

Carbohydrates  in  4  lbs.  corn                =  66.7  x  .04  =  2.668  lbs. 

Carbohydrates  in  30  lbs.  corn  silage  =  11.3  x  .30  =  3.390  lbs. 

Carbohydrates  in  5  lbs.  corn  stover  =  32.4  x  .05  =  1.620  lbs. 

Carbohydrates  in  5  lbs.  clover  hay    =  35.8  x  .05  =  1.790  lbs. 


Total    carbohydrates         =13.165  lbs. 
Standard        =13.00     lbs. 


Amt.  in 

100  lbs. 

Ether  extract  in  9  lbs.  bran                 =    2.7  x  .09  =  0.243  lbs. 

Ether  extract  in  1  lb.  c.  s.  meal          =  12.2  x  .01  =  0.122  lbs. 

Ether  extract  in  4  lbs.  corn                 =    4.3  x  .04  =  0.172  lbs. 

Ether  extract  in  30  lbs.  corn  silage    =    0.7  x  .30  =  0.210  lbs. 

Ether  extract  in  5  lbs.  corn  stover    =    0.7  x  .05  =  0.035  lbs. 

Ether  extract  in  5  lbs.  clover  hay      =    1.7  x  .05  =  0.085  lbs. 


Total  ether  extract        =  0.867  lbs. 
Standard        =  0.50     lbs. 

To  make  the  above  calculation  perfectly  plain  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  table  on  page  35  says  that  100  lbs.  of 
bran  contain  12.2  lbs.  of  protein.  If  100  lbs.  contain  12.2 
lbs.,  9  lbs.  of  bran  will  contain  nine  hundredths  of  12.2 
lbs.  or  .09  X  12.2,  which  equals  1.098  lbs.  of  protein.  The 
method  is  the  same  in  the  remaining  computations. 

Nutritive  Ratio.  In  speaking  of  rations,  the  terms 
"wide"  ration  and  "narrow"  ration  are  frequently  used. 
The  terms  refer  to  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  to  non- 
nitrogenous  matter  in  the  ration.  This  proportion  is 
spoken  of  as  the  nutritive  ratio,  which  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  digestible  carbohydrates  plus  2.25  (heat 
equivalent  of  carbohydrates)  times    the    digestible    ether 


40  DAIRY  FARMING 

extract,  by  the  digestible  protein.  In  the  ration  calculated 
above  the  nutritive  ratio  equals  13.17+  (2.25  X  -87)  -=- 
2.48  =  6.1 ;  that  is  the  nutritive  ratio  in  this  case  is  1:6.1. 

\Mien  the  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter  is  small  as 
compared  with  the  non-nitrogenous  matter,  the  ration  is 
said  to  be  "wide."  When  the  reverse  is  true,  the  ration 
is  said  to  be  "narrow.'' 

Proportion  of  Roughage  and  Concentrates.  Accord- 
ing to  our  feeding  standard,  a  cow  yielding  22  pounds  of 
milk  requires  a  ration  containing  16  pounds  of  digestible 
nutrients  and  a  total  of  29  pounds  of  dry  matter  (digest- 
ible and  indigestible).  This  amount  of  dry  matter  means 
that  the  ration  must  have  a  fairly  definite  bulk.  Where 
the  ration  contains  a  great  deal  of  rich  concentrates  in 
proportion  to  roughage,  it  is  apt  to  lack  in  bulk.  On  the 
other  hand  a  ration  containing  a  large  proportion  of  corn 
stover,  oat  straw  and  similar  roughage,  is  likely  to  make 
the  ration  so  bulky  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  a  heavv 
producer  to  consume  enough  of  it  to  obtain  the  required 
nutrients. 

In  the  ration  calculated  on  page  38  the  proportion  of 
roughage  and  concentrates  is  about  right.  Under  average 
conditions  a  cow  yielding  22  pounds  of  milk  should  have 
a  ration  composed  of  about  two-thirds  roughage  and  one- 
third  concentrates.  For  greater  yields  it  is  best,  as  a 
rule,  to  increase  only  the  concentrates  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  additional  flow  of  milk,  thus  making  the  pro- 
portion of  concentrates  to  roughage  greater  the  larger 
the  yield  of  milk. 

Fertilizing  Constituents  of  Feed.  These  are  nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  Feeds  rich  in  these 
constituents  will  produce  manure  correspondingly  rich 
in  them.     In  the  selection  of  feeds,  therefore,  some  atten- 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


41 


tion  should  be  given  to  their  manurial  value,  especially 
since  feeds  differ  so  widely  in  this  respect. 

An  illustration  of  the  extent  to  which  feeds  differ  in 
their  fertilizing  or  manurial  constituents  is  given  in  the 
following  table,  which  shows  the  amount  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  contained  in  corn  and  cotton 
seed  meal.  The  table  also  shows  the  value  of  these  con- 
stituents, which  was  obtained  by  rating  the  nitrogen  at 
15  cents  per  pound,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
at  4^2  cents  per  pound. 

TABLE  IV.  Showing  fertilizing  constituents  in 
corn  and  cottonseed  meal. 


Fertilizing  constituents  in  one  ton. 

Feed. 

Nitrogen. 
Lbs. 

Phos- 
phoric 

acid. 

Lbs. 

Potash. 
Lbs. 

Total 
value. 

Corn 

36.4 
135.8 

14.0 
57.6 

8.0 
17.4 

$6  45 

Cotton  seed  meal 

23.75 

The  table  shows  that  the  fertilizing  value  of  a  ton  of 
cottonseed  meal  exceeds  that  of  a  ton  of  corn  by  $17.30, 
an  amount  that  certainly  must  appeal  to  the  man  who  is 
dairying  on  a  business  basis. 


II.      PRACTICE  OF  FEEDING. 

Frequency  of  Feeding.  The  main  part  of  the  ration 
should  be  supplied  in  two  feeds ;  one  in  the  morning  and 
the  other  in  the  late  afternoon.  It  is  desirable  to  feed 
some  dry  roughage  at  noon,  especially  when  the  roughage 
in  the  morning  and  evening  consists  of  silage.     The  cow, 


42  DAIRY   FARMING 

on  account  of  her  large  store  room,  the  paunch,  is  ca- 
pable of  storing  up  a  large  quantity  of  feed  and,  therefore, 
does  not  require  as  many  feeds  as  some  other  farm 
animals. 

Order  of  Feeding  Concentrates  and  Roughage.  As 
a  rule  it  is  best  to  feed  the  concentrates  just  previous  to 
milking  and  the  roughage  immediately  thereafter.  The 
grain  helps  to  attract  the  cows  to  their  stalls,  and,  by  feed- 
ing the  roughage  after  milking,  we  avoid  tainting  the  milk 
with  undesirable  odors  when  the  roughage  contains  these. 
When  corn  silage,  for  example,  is  fed  immediately  before 
milking,  its  odor  is  always  perceptible  in  the  milk.  When 
fed  after  milking,  the  odor  is  never  detected.  It  is 
believed  also  that  feeding  the  concentrates  by  themselves 
will  result  in  a  more  thorough  mixing  of  saliva  with 
them  and  thus  increase  their  digestibility.  Furthermore, 
a  great  deal  of  dust  can  be  avoided  by  feeding  the  rough- 
age after  milking,  particularly  when  the  roughage  con- 
sists of  hay  or  dry  fodder. 

A  prevailing  opinion  that  heavy  concentrates  will  form 
an  injurious,  pasty  mass  in  the  cow's  stomach  does  not 
seem  to  be  well  founded.  When  the  concentrates  are  fed 
directly  before  milking  and  the  roughage  directly  after, 
there  will  be  sufficient  mixing  in  the  paunch  before  the 
contents  pass  into  the  stomach  proper.  The  author  for 
several  years,  has  successfully  followed  the  practice  of 
feeding  concentrates  and  roughage  separately  when  the 
former  consisted  of  as  much  as  five  pounds  of  cotton- 
seed meal  per  day. 
.  Feeding  Before  and  After  Calving.  Toward  the 
close  of  the  lactation  period,  the  grain  ration  should  be 
graduall\-  reduced,  either  because  of  the  reduced  flow  of 
milk,  or  on  account  of  the  desirabilil)'  of  drying  up  the 


THE   DAIRY  HERD  43 

cow  so  that  she  may  have  a  month's  rest  before  calving. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  even  while  the 
cow  goes  dry  she  still  requires  nutritious  feed  to  properly 
nourish  the  foetus  within  her.  The  requirements  as  to 
feed  at  this  time  call  for  plenty  of  succulent  roughage, 
and  some  grain  which  is  rich  in  ash  and  protein,  at  the 
same  time  laxative  in  character. 

If  the  cow  is  feeding  on  good  pasture  the  grain  may 
be  entirely  withheld  a  month  previous  to  calving.  Indeed, 
if  pasture  is  luxurious,  it  is  desirable  to  restrict  the  time 
during  which  she  is  allowed  to  graze  lest  she  overfeed 
and  invite  milk  fever.  When  no  pasture  is  available,  a 
ration  consisting  of  corn  silage,  good  hay  and  about  four 
pounds  of  grain  will  answer  very  satisfactorily.  A  desir- 
able grain  ration  is  made  up  of  linseed  meal,  wheat  bran 
and  ground  oats,  using  these  feeds  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  pound  of  linseed  meal  and  one  and  a  half 
pounds  each  of  bran  and  oats.  This  ration  not  only  sup- 
plies the  proper  nutrients  for  the  development  of  the 
foetus,  but  owing  to  its  laxativeness,  keeps  the  cow  in 
the  best  physical  condition. 

A  few  days  before  and  after  calving  the  grain  is  pref- 
erably supplied  in  the  form  of  a  warm  mash.  Warm 
water  should  also  be  freely  supplied  at  this  time.  Three 
to  six  days  after  calving  the  grain  should  be  gradually 
increased  until  the  maximum  amount  consistent  with 
economical  production  has  been  supplied. 

If  the  cow  has  been  properly  nurtured  previous  to 
calving,  she  will  have  stored  up  a  considerable  amount  of 
reserve  material  which  she  draws  on  immediately  after 
calving,  thus  making  a  heavy  grain  ration  at  this  time 
not  only  not  desirable  but  entirely  unnecessary. 

Feeding  Silage.     The  cheapest  and  most  satisfactory 


44  DAIRY   FARMING 

roughage  that  can  be  produced  upon  most  farms,  is  corn 
silage.  Its  succulence  and  palatability  make  it  an  ideal 
feed  for  milk  production.  This  feed  should  be  available 
upon  the  farm  the  larger  portion  of  the  year.  In  winter 
it  takes  the  place  of  summer  pasturage ;  during  the  late 
summer  and  fall  it  is  needed  to  supplement  the  shortage 
of  pasturage  which  usually  occurs  about  this  time. 

An  average  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk  will  consume  40 
pounds  of  silage  daily  to  good  advantage.  This  amount 
of  silage  combined  with  8  or  10  pounds  of  dry  fodder  or 
hay  makes  a  good  combination  of  roughage  for  a  dairy 
cow. 

Feeding  Grain.  It  should  be  remembered  that  silage 
contains  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  where  this  feed 
constitutes  the  main  part  of  the  roughage  of  the  ration, 
a  considerable  amount  of  grain  must  be  fed  to  supply  the 
required  nutrients  of  a  heavy  milk  producer.  The 
amount  of  concentrates  to  be  fed  is,  of  course,  largely 
dependent  upon  the  amount  of  milk  and  butterfat  pro- 
duced by  the  cow. 

Water.  An  abundance  of  pure  water  is  a  prime  neces- 
sity with  a  dairy  cow.  This  is  to  be  expected  from  the 
fact  that  milk  is  largely  composed  of  water.  Where  cows 
have  no  access  to  flowing  water,  they  should  be  watered 
regularly  morning  and  night;  and  during  hot  weather  a 
third  watering  at  noon  is  desirable.  The  fact  that  milk  is 
composed  so  largely  of  water  should  emphasize  the  im- 
portance of  supplying  only  pure  water.  We  may  reason- 
ably expect  the  same  bad  effect  on  the  health  of  the  cow 
and  the  flavor  of  the  milk  from  stale,  impure  water  which 
is  noticeable  from  the  feeding  of  stale,  odoriferous  feeds. 

Salt.    Cows  should  have  daily  access  to  all  the  salt  they 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  45 

care  to  lick.  Either  common  granular  salt  or  rock  salt 
will  answer  the  purpose  satisfactorily. 

Feeding  According  to  Flow.  In  the  economical  pro- 
duction of  milk,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  feed  cows 
according  to  their  productive  capacity.  Just  what  this 
productive  capacity  is  can  be  determined  only  by  keeping 
a  careful  account  of  the  feed  consumed  and  the  milk  and 
butterfat  yielded  by  each  cow  individually.  Such  a 
record  will  soon  show  to  what  extent  cows  will  profitably 
respond  to  the  feed  given  them. 

Importance  of  Feeding  a  Full  Ration.  According  to 
the  German  feeding  standard,  a  cow  weighing  1,000 
pounds  requires  for  body  maintenance  0.7  pound  of 
digestible  protein,  8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates 
and  0.1  pound  of  digestible  ether  extract.  This  shows 
that  about  half  the  nutrients  called  for  in  a  ration  for  an 
average  milker  are  used  to  sustain  the  body  so  that  it 
will  neither  gain  nor  lose  in  weight;  the  other  half  being 
used  to  form  milk.  Returns  for  feed  can,  therefore,  be 
expected  only  from  about  50%  of  the  total  nutrients 
required  by  the  cow.  This  means  that  a  cow  on  a  full 
ration  will  yield  practically  twice  as  much  milk  as  she 
would  on  three-fourths  of  a  ration.  Yet  there  are  thou- 
sands of  dairymen  who  fail  to  supply  the  last  quarter 
of  a  ration  and  thus  bring  ruin  upon  themselves  and 
their  business. 

III.  TABLE  GIVING  COMPOSITION  OF  FEEDS. 
At  the  beginning,  it  was  stated  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  feeds  was  necessary  for  two  reasons : 
First,  to  enable  the  feeder  to  determine  the  relative  value 
of  the  feeds  at  his  disposal ;  and  second,  to  assist  in  deter- 
mining what  quantity  of  feed  is  necessary  to  supply  the 


46 


DAIRY   FARMING 


required  nutrients.  To  afford  the  feeder  as  wide  a  choice 
as  possible,  a  long  table  of  feeds  is  herewith  presented, 
showing  not  only  the  digestible,  organic  nutrients,  but 
also  the  fertilizing  constituents.  This  table  is  taken  from 
Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  by  permission  of  the 
author. 

TABLE  V.     A-verage  digestible  nutrients  and  fertiliz- 
ing constituents  in  American  feeding  stuffs. 


Name  of  feed. 


Concentrates. 

Corn,  all  analyses 

Dent  corn 

Flint  corn 

Sweet  corn 

Corn  cob , 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Corn  bran 

Gluten  meal 

Germ  meal 

Starch  refuse 

Grano-gluten 

Hominy  chops 

Glucose  meal 

Sugar  meal 

Gluten  feed 


Lbs. 


89.1 
89.4 
88.7 
91.2 
89.8 
84.9 
90.9 
91.8 
89.6 
91.8 
94 


88.9 
91.9  30 
93.2 
92.2120 


Digestible 

nutrients  in  100 

pounds. 


a; 
o 

Oh 

Lbs 


7.9 
7.8 
8.0 
8.8 
0.4 
4.4 
7.4 

^5.8 
9.0 

11.4 
7 
7.5 
3 

18.7 
4 


3  26 


O 
Lbs, 


u  « 

Lbs 


4.S 
4.S 
4.8 
7.0 
0.8 
2.9 
4.6 

11.0 
6.2 
6.5 

12.4 
6.8 
4.5 

18 


Fertilizing 

constituents  in 

1,000  pounds. 


Lbs. 


18.2 
16.5 
16.8 
18  6 
5.0 
14.1 
16.3 
50.3 
26.5 
22.4 
49.8 
16.3 
57.7 
36.3 
88.4 


o 

.d   . 

Lbs. 


7.0 


.6 

5.7 
12.1 
3.3 
8.0 
7.0 
5.1 
9.8 


4.1 
4.1 


Lbs. 


4.0 


6.0 
4.7 
6.8 
0.5 
5.0 
5.2 
1.5 
4.9 


0  8 
0.3 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


47 


Table  V.      Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents- C 


Name  of  feed. 


Wheat 

High-grade  flour 

Low-grade  flour 

Dark  feeding  flour 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  bran,  spring  wheat. 
Wheat  bran,  winter  wheat.. 

Wheat  shorts 

Wheat  middlings 

Wheat  screenings 


Rye 

Rye  bran.. . 
Rye  shorts. 


Barley 

Malt  sprouts 

Brewers'  grains,  wet. . . 
Brewers  grains,  dried. , 


Oats 

Oat  meal 

Oat  feed  or  shorts. 
Oat  dust 


Rice 

Rice  hulls. . 
Rice  bran. . 
Rice  polish. 


Buckwheat 

Buckwheat  hulls 

Buckwheat  bran 

Buckwheat  shorts 

Buckwheat  middlings. 


Lbs. 


89.5 
87.6 
87.6 
90.3 

88 
88 
87 


Digestible 

nutrients  in  100 

pounds. 


E 

Lbs 


.7 
88.2 
87.9 
88.4 

88.4 
88.4 
90.7 

89.1 
89.8 
24.3 
91.8 

89.0 
92.1 
92.3 
93.5 


10.2 

8.9 

8.2 

13.5 

12.2 

12.9 

12.3 

12.2 

12 

9.8 

9.9 
11.5 
11.9 

7 

18.6 

3.9 

15.7 


Oathulls 90.6 


87.6 
91.8 
90.3 
90.0 

87.4 
86.8 
89.5 
88.9 
87.3 


X2  C8 


o 
Lbs. 


2 

62.4 
62.7 
61.3 
39.2 
40.1 
37.1 
50.0 
53.0 
51.0 

67.6 
50.3 
45.1 

65.6 

37.1 

9.3 

36.3 


9.247.3 
11.552.1 
12.546.9 


Lbs. 


8.9 
1.3 

4.8 
1.6 
5.3 
9.0 

7.7 

2.1 

7.4 

Sl.l 

22.0 


72.2 
44.5 
45.1 
56.4 

49.2 
27.9 
30.4 
33.5 
33.4 


1.7 

0.9 

0 

2  0 

2.7 

3.4 

2 

3 

3.4 

2.2 

1.1 
2.0 
1.6 

1 
1 

1.4 
5.1 

4.2 

5.9 
2.8 
5.1 
0.6 

0.3 
0.6 
7.3 
6.5 

1.8 
0.6 
1.9 
5.5 
5.4 


Fertilizing 

constituents  in 

1,000  pounds. 


Lbs. 


23.6 

18.9 
28.9 
31. 
26.7 


28.2 
26.3 
24.4 

17.6 
23.2 

18.4 

15.1 
35.5 

8.9 
36.2 

20.6 
23.5 
17.2 
21.6 
5.2 

10.8 
5.8 
7  1 

19.7 

14.4 

4.9 

36.4 


o 

Q.'O 

H 

Lbs. 


7.9 

2.2 

5.6 

21.4 

28.9 


42.8 


13.5 

9.5 

11.7 

8.2 
22.8 
12.6 

7.9 
14  3 

3.1 
10.3 


8.2 
'9.1 
'2'.4 


1.8 

1.7 

2.9 

26.7 

4.4 
0.7 

17.8 


21.9 


Lbs 

5.0 

1.5 

3.5 

10.9 

16.1 


5.9 
6.3 

8.4 

5.4 
14.0 

8.1 

4.8 

16.3 

0.5 

0.9 

6.2 

'5!3 

'5!2 

0.9 
1.4 
2.4 
7.1 

2.1 
5.2 

12.8 


11.4 


48  DAIRY   FARMING 

Table  V.      Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents.-C(?«. 


Name  of  feed. 


H  3 

Q 
Lbs 


Sorghum  seed ^7  • 

Broom-corn  seed 85. 

Kaffir  corn 84.8 

Millet 86.0 


Flax  seed 90. 

Linseed  meal,  old  process 90. 

Linseed  meal,  new  process 89. 

Cotton  seed 89 . 

Cotton-seed  meal 91 , 


Cotton-seed  hulls 88. 

Cocoanut  meal 89 , 

Palm-nut  meal 89, 

Sunflower  seed 92 , 

Sunflower  seed  cakes 91 , 

Peanut  meal 89, 

Rape-seed  meal 90, 


Digestible 

nutrients  in  100 

pounds. 


o 
Lbs 


7.0 
7.4 

7  -^ 


O  *^ 

o 
Lbs. 


52.1 

48.3 
57.1 
45.0 


20.6 

8129.3 

9  28.2 

12.5 

8137.2 

9   0.3 

7  15.6 

16.0 

12.1 

31.2 

3|42.9 

0  25.2 


Peas 89 

Soja  ( soy)  bean 89 . 2 

Cowpea 85.2 

Horse  bean.  85 . 7 


Roughage. 
Fodder  corn. 

Fodder  corn,  green 20 . 

Fodder  corn,  field-cured 57 , 

Corn  stover,  field-cured !59. 

Fresh  grass. 

Pasture  grasses  ( mixed ) '20. 

Kentucky  blue  grass 34. 

Timothy,  different  stages 38. 

Orchard  grass,  in  bloom 27 . 

Redtop,  in  bloom 34, 

Oat  fodder 37. 


16.8 
29.6 
18.3 
22.4 


1.0 
2.5 
1.7 


u  « 
(U  S3 

Lbs. 


Fertilizing 

constituents  in 

1,000  pounds. 


Lbs 


51.8 
22.3 
54.2 
49.3 


11.6 
34.6 
32.4 


3.1 

2.9 
2  7 
3.2 

29.0 

7.0 

2.8 

17.3 

12.2 

1.7 

10.5 

9.0 

29.0 

12.8 

6  9 

7.5 

0.7 

14.4 

1.1 

1.2 


0.4 
1.2 
0.7 


10.2 
19.8 
19.1 
11.4 
21.2 
18.9 


0.5 

0.8 

0.6 

0.5 

0 

1.0 


14.8 
16.3 


20.4 


o 

0.-0 


Lbs. 


36 

54 
57.8 
31.3 
67.9 
6 

32 
26 
22 
55 

75.6 
49.6 


30.8 
53  0 
33.3 
40.7 


4.1 
17.6 
10.4 


9.1 

'4".8 
4.3 


4.9 


13.9 
16.6 
18.3 
12.7 
28.8 
2.5 
16.0 
11  0 
12,2 
21.5 
13.1 
20.0 


Lbs. 


4.2 


3.6 

10.3 

13.7 

13.9 

11.7 

8.7 

10.2 

24.0 

5.0 

5.6 

11.7 

15.0 

13.0 


8.2   9  9 
18.719.0 


12.0 


1.5 
5.4 
2.9 

2.3 

*2:6 
1.6 


1.3 


12.9 


3.3 

8.9 
14.0 


7.5 
7.6 


3.8 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


49 


Table  V.     Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  const  ituents.-C^«. 


Name  of  feed. 


Rye  fodder 

Sorghum ._ 

Meadow  fescue,  in  bloom. 

Hungarian  grass 

Green  barley 

Peas  and  oats 

Peas  and  barley 

Hay. 

Timothy 

Orchard  grass 

Redtop 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

Hungarian  grass 

Mixed  grasses 

Rowen  ( mixed) 

Meadow  fescue 

Soja-bean  hay 

Oat  hay 

Marsh  or  swamp  hay.  . , . 

Marsh  or  swamp  hay 

White  daisy 

Straw. 


Wheat 

Rye 

Oat 

Barley 

Wheat  chaff. 
Oat  chaff 


Fresh  legumes. 

Red  clover,  different  stages, 

Alsike,  bloom 

Crimson  clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja  bean 


Q 
Lbs 


Digestible 

nutrients  in  100 

pounds. 


0) 

o 
Lbs 


2.1 

0.6 
1.5 

2.0 
0   1.9 
1 
1.7 


0   1.8 


2. 
4. 
4. 
4. 
4. 
5. 
7. 
4. 
7  10. 


.0 


29 
25 
19 

28.2 

16 

24 


Lbs, 


14.1 
12.2 
16.8 
16.0 
10.2 
7.1 
7.2 


4)  <A 

w 

Lbs, 


3.8 

0.4 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.8 
1.5 

2.9 

2.7 

2.4 

8.9 

1 

3.2 


40.7 


36. 

40.6 

88.6 

41.2 

23.3 

33.0 


14.8 
13 

9.1 
12.7 

8.7 
11.0 


Fertilizing 

constituents  in 

1,000  pounds. 


0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.4 
0.2 
0.2 


1.4 
1.4 
1.0 
2.0 
1.3 
1.2 
1.5 
1.7 
1.5 
1.5 
0.9 
0.7 
1.2 

0.4 
0.4 
0.8 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 


0 

0.6 

0 

0 

0 

0 


Lbs. 

~3^3 
2.3 


3.9 


o 

O.'O 

Ph 
Lbs. 


12.6 
13.1 
11.5 
11.9 
12.0 
14.1 
16.1 
9.9 
23.2 


5.9 

4.6 

6.2 

13.1 

7.9 


1.5 
0  9 


1.6 


o 

Lbs. 

7.3 
2.3 


5.5 


5.3 
4.1 
3.6 
4.0 
3.5 
2.7 
4.3 
4.0 
6.7 


9.0 
18.8 
10.2 
15.7 
13.0 
15.5 
14.9 
21.0 
10.8 


1.2 

2.8 
2.0 
3.0 
7.0 


1.3 
1.1 
1.3 
1.8 
1.0 
1.5 


6.1 

7.9 
12.4 
20.9 

4.2 


4.6 

2.0 
4.9 
5.6 
3.1 
5.3 


50 


DAIRY    FARMING 


Table  V.     Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents.-^" 


Name  of  feed. 


Legume  hay  and  straw. 


Red  clover,  medium . . 
Red  clover,  mammoth 

Alsike  clover 

White  clover 

Crimson  clover. 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soja-bean  straw 

Pea-vine  straw 


Silage. 


Corn 

Clover 

Sorghum 

Alfalfa 

Grass 

Cowpea  vine 

Soja  bean 

Barn-yard  millet  and  soja  bean 
Corn  and  soja  bean 


8 

d 
u 

S  3 

T.bs 


Digestible 

nutrients  in  100 

pounds. 


a 
o 

u 

Lbs 


6 

6.7 

8.4 
11.5 
10.5 
11.0 
10.8 

2.3 


o 
Lbs. 


35.8 
32.0 
42.5 
42.2 
34.9 
39.6 
38.6 
40.0 
4.332.3 


Roots  and  tubers. 

Potato 

Beet,  common 

Beet,  sugar 

Beet,  mangel 

Flat  turnip 

Ruta-baga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 


20.9 
28.0 
23.9 
27.5 
32.0 
20.7 
25.8 
21.0 
24.0 


21.1 
13.0 
13.5 
9.1 
9.5 
11.4 
11.4 
11.7 
20.0 


0.911.3 
2.013.5 
0.614.9 
3.0  8.5 
1.913.4 


u  o 

4)  rt 

■a  is 

S 

Lbs 


1.7 

1  9 

1.5 

1.5 

1.2 

1.2 

1 

1.0 

0.8 


1.5 

2.7 
1.6 
1.6 


0.9 
1.2 
1.1 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 
0.8 
1.6 
2.0 


8.6 

8.7 

9.2 

13.0 


16.3 
8.8 

10.2 
5.4 
7.2 
8.1 
7.8 

11.2 

16.8 


Fertilizing 

constituents  in 

1,000  pounds. 


Lbs. 


0 

1 

0.2 

1.9 

1.6 

0.9 

1.3 

0.7 

0.7 


0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 
0.2 


20 

22 

23.4 

27.5 

20.5 

21.9 

19.5 

17.5 

14.3 


2.8 


o 

Ph 
Lbs. 


3.2 
2.4 
2.2 
1.9 

1.8 
1.9 
1.5 
1.8 
2.6 


3 

5.5 

6.7 

5.2 

4.0 

5.1 

5.2 

4.0 

3.5 


1.1 


Lbs 


22.0 
12.2 
22.3 
18.1 
13.1 
16.8 
14.7 
13.2 
10.2 


3.7 


1.2 
0.9 
1.0 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
1.4 


4.4 
4.8 
3.8 
3.9 
4.9 
5.1 
4.4 
4.7 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  51 

Table  V.     Digestible  nutrients  and  fertilizing  constituents.— C^'w, 


Name  of  feed. 


Q 
Lbs 


Digestible 

nu  rienls  in  100 

pounds 


o 
Lbs. 


Spurry. 
Sugar-beet  leaves. 

Pumpkin,  field 

Pumpkin,  garden. 
Prickly  comfrey. . 
Rape 


Miscellaneous. 

Cabbage 15.3 

20.0 
12.0 
9.1 
19.2 
11.6 
14.0 


Acorns,  fresh ,44 . 7 


Dried  blood 91.5  52.3 

Meat  scrap 89.3  66.2 

Dried  fish 89.2  44.1 

Beet  pulp 10.2   0.6 

Beet  molasses 79.2   9.1 


Cow's  milk 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum 
Skim  milk,  gravity..   .. 
Skim  milk,  centrifugal. 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


25.4 
9.6 
9.4 
9.9 
6.6 


o 

LbS. 


1.8 
1.5 
1.7 
1.0 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
2.1 


3.6 
17.6 
3.1 
2.9 
3.9 
0 


8.2 
9.8 
4.6 
5. 
8.3 
4.6 
8.1 
34.4 


4)  J, 
U  O 

Lbs. 


0.4 

0.3 

0.2 

0.3 

0 

0.2 

0.2 

1.7 


Fertilizing 

constituents  in 

1,000  pounds 


Lbs. 


3.8 
3.8 
4.1 


0  2.5 
313.7 


.0 

7.3 

59.5 

4.9 
2.7 
4.7 
5.2 
4.0 
4.7 


10.3 


1.1 
4.2 
4 


o 


Lbs. 


1.1 

2.5 
1.5 


1.6 
1.1 
1.5 


Lbs. 


4.3 
5.9 
6.2 


0.9 

7.5 
3.6 


135.0 
113 

77 
1 
14.6 

5.3 
28.2 
5.6 
5.6 
4.8 
1.5 


13.5 

7.0 

120.0 

0.2 

0.5 

1.9 
6.6 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
1.4 


7.7 
1.0 
2.0 
0.4 
56.3 

1.8 
1.1 
1.9 
1.9 
1.6 
1.8 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

SIIvOS  AND  SILAGE. 

A  silo  is  an  air-tight  receptacle  for  preserving  green 
feeds  in  a  succulent  condition.  Feed  thus  preserved  is 
known  as  silage.  Clover,  cow-peas  and  other  forage 
crops  have  been  successfully  made  into  silage,  but  expe- 
rience has  shown  that  the  cheapest  and  most  satisfactory 
silage  is  made  from  corn  cut  in  the  denting  or  glazing 
stage. 

Silage  is  now  universally  recognized  as  one  of  the 
cheapest  and  most  indispensable  feeds  in  economical  milk 
production.  With  the  studious  dairyman,  it  is  no  longer 
a  question  of,  ''Can  I  afford  to  build  a  silo,"  but,  "Can  I 
afford  to  be  without  one?" 

Advantages  of  Silage.  The  advantages  of  feeding 
silage  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : 

1.  It  furnishes  the  cheapest  roughage  available  upon 
the  farm. 

2.  It  furnishes  roughage,  which,  in  degree  of  suc- 
culence and  palatability,  more  nearly  approaches  green 
pasturage  than  anything  else  to  be  had  upon  the  farm. 

3.  Owing  to  its  kinship  to  grass  in  succulence  and 
palatability,  it  can  readily  be  substituted  for  the  latter 
during  periods  of  drought  and  during  late  summer  and 
fall  when  pasturage  is  nearly  always  inadequate. 

4.  It  has  made  winter  dairying  a  feasible  and  profit- 
able business,  because  the  silage  readily  takes  the  place 
of  summer  pasturage. 

5.  It  furnishes  a  uniform  feed  and  makes  uniformly 

52 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  53 

good  feeding  a  possibility  the  year  round. 

6.  It  permits  the  storage  of  a  large  amount  of  feed  in 
a  comparatively  small  space. 

7.  Where  the  silo  adjoins  the  barn  it  makes  feeding 
easy. 

8.  It  permits  housing  the  corn  crop  regardless  of  the 
condition  of  the  weather. 

9.  There  is  practically  no  waste  in  feeding. 

10.  It  yields  the  largest  amount  of  feed  possible  from 
the  corn  plant. 

Size  of  Silo.  The  size  of  the  silo  is  determined  by 
the  number  of  cattle  to  be  fed.  In  general,  a  cow  will 
consume  about  40  pounds  of  silage  daily;  and,  if  fed 
silage  180  days  in  the  year,  she  will  consume  a  total  of 
7,200  pounds.  At  this  rate  20  head  of  cattle  would  con- 
sume y2  tons.  But  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  re- 
quires a  silo  of  not  less  than  80  tons'  capacity  to  hold 
72  tons  of  well  made  silage.  A  cylindrical  silo  of  this 
capacity  will  measure  about  14  feet  in  diameter  and  28 
feet  in  height.     (See  appendix.) 

A  good  rule  to  follow  in  determining  the  size  of  a  silo 
is  to  estimate  the  amount  of  silage  that  is  to  be  fed  dur- 
ing the  year  and  assume  a  weight  of  40  pounds  for  every 
cubic  foot  of  silage. 

Silos  should  not  be  built  too  large.  Where  150  to  200 
tons  of  silage  are  required,  it  is  far  better  to  put  this 
amount  of  silage  into  two  silos  than  into  one.  The  height 
of  the  silo  should  be  limited  to  thirty  feet.  Too  much 
power  is  required  in  elevating  the  silage  higher  than 
this  and  those  who  have  climbed  high  silos  will  be  able  to 
testify  to  the  fact  that  it  is  not  an  agreeable  task. 

Where  a  silo  is  built  with  a  reasonable  capacity,  it  is 


54  DAIRY  FARMING 

also  more  restricted  in  diameter  which  permits  a  deeper 
layer  of  silage  to  be  removed  daily.  This  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  keeping  the  silage  fresher  in  summer  and  re- 
ducing the  amount  of  freezing  in  winter.  Where  only  one 
silo  is  used,  silage  is  frequently  carried  over  from  one 
year  to  another  until  the  bottom  part  may  be  three  to 
eight  years  old  before  it  is  finally  fed. 

Location  of  Silo.  For  convenience  of  feeding,  the 
silo  should  be  as  near  the  manger  as  possible.  It  is 
preferably  joined  to  the  barn  at  one  end  by  means  of  a 
chute,  so  that  one  can  step  into  the  silo  without  leaving 
the  barn.  Where  the  silo  is  thus  located,  it  is  necessary 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  silage  odors  at  milking  time, 
by  providing  doors  for  closing  up  the  chute  leading  to 
the  silo. 

Silos  should  be  located  to  give  them  as  much  protection 
from  cold  as  possible.  This  is  especially  necessary  >vith 
concrete  silos. 

The  location  of  silos  with  regard  to  keeping  the  silage 
from  freezing  has  been  given  too  little  consideration  by 
silo  builders. 

Construction  of  Silo.  Silos  should  be  round,  having 
the  appearance  of  a  cylinder  whose  height  is  about  twice 
its  diameter.  They  may  be  built  of  wood,  stone,  brick, 
concrete,  or  a  combination  of  two  or  more  of  these.  As  a 
rule,  the  choice  is  determined  by  the  relative  cost  and 
availability  of  the  materials  mentioned. 

In  building  a  silo  four  things  must  be  kept  in  mind. 
First,  it  must  be  air-tight.  Second,  it  must  have  sufficient 
strength  and  rigidity  to  enable  it  to  withstand  the  pres- 
sure of  the  silage  without  yielding.  Third,  it  must  have 
a   smooth   inside   surface  to  permit  the  .  silage  to  settle 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  55 

readily.  And,  fourth,  it  must  be  deep  so  that  the  weight 
of  the  silage  will  give  compactness  sufficient  to  expel  the 
air  which  is  held  between  the  particles  of  silage. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  total  depth  of  the  silo  be  at 
least  30  feet.  Where  the  ground  is  dry,  five  or  six  feet 
of  this  depth  may  be  underground.  When  30  feet  is 
selected  as  the  fixed  depth,  the  silo  can  be  made  of  the 
desired  capacity  by  selecting  the  proper  diameter,  which 
may  vary  from  12  to  24  feet. 

concrete:  silos. 

Concrete  has  all  the  qualities  sought  in  the  construction 
of  an  ideal  silo  when  handled  in  the  proper  manner.  There 
are  various  forms  of  concrete  silos  built  at  the  present 
time.  Some  are  built  of  hollow  blocks,  some  with  a 
single  solid  wall,  and  others  with  a  double  wall  and  an  air 
space  between.  The  single  solid  wall  has  proven  popular 
where  the  silo  can  be  so  located  as  to  give  it  good  pro- 
tection from  the  cold  of  the  winter. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  two  single  solid  walled 
silos  built  on  ''Michels'   Stock  Farm."   (See  Fig.  9>^.) 

The  silos  are  each  fourteen  feet,  ten  inches  in  diameter 
(inside)  and  thirty  feet  high.  The  walls  up  to  within 
three  feet  of  the  doors  are  six  inches  thick;  from  this 
point  they  gradually  increase  in  thickness  to  eight  inches 
at  the  doors.  The  doors  are  of  the  continuous  kind, 
extending  from  top  to  bottom.  The  break  in  the  silo 
caused  by  the  continuous  door  is  strengthened  by  running 
three-quarter  inch  iron  rods  horizontally  across  the  open- 
ing at  intervals  of  twenty-four  inches.  The  ends  of  those 
rods  are  embedded  in  the  concrete  wall  a  distance  of  four 
inches  and  fastened  to  them  are  the  ends  of  No.  5  rein- 


56  DAIRY  FARMING 

forcing  wire.  A  reinforcing  wire  is  laid  every  foot.  The 
roof  is  made  of  lumber  and  covered  with  prepared  roof- 
ing paper.  It  took  three  men  six  days  to  put  up  the  silo 
wall  including  the  concrete  bottom. 

Cost  of  One  Silo.  The  itemized  cost  of  each  silo  is 
as  follows : 

Labor,  digging  foundation $16.00 

Labor,  putting  up  the  concrete  wall. .  .  .   65.00 
Thirty-nine  barrels  cement  at  $1.20   a 

barrel    46.80 

One  and  one-half  rolls  Xo.   5  wire  at 

$1.65  a  roll 2.47 

Twenty  loads  gravel    (distance  hauled 

300  yards)  at  40  cents  a  load 8.00 

Roof   35-00 

Binding  irons   run  horizontally  across 

door  openings    2.75 

Total  cost  of  silo,  without  doors $176.02 

The  labor  in  putting  up  the  concrete  work  was  per- 
formed by  silo  builders  who  were  paid  by  the  day  and 
they  furnished  their  own  molds  and  concrete  mixer.  The 
latter  was  run  with  a  one  and  one-half  horsepower  gaso- 
line engine.  No  account  was  taken  of  the  cost  of  the 
•gasoline  which,  however,  was  small.  Flowing  water  was 
run  right  up  to  the  silo. 

Doors.  On  the  inside,  right  at  the  edges  of  the  con- 
tinuous opening  for  the  doors,  a  depression,  two  inches 
deep  and  two  inches  wide,  is  made  to  receive  the  doors. 
This  depression  is  made  by  putting  a  2x2-inch  stud  in  the 
mold.  The  doors  consist  of  pieces  of  planks  twelve  inches 
wide.     To  prevent  entrance  of  air  where  the  planks  join. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


57 


58  DAIRY  FARMING 

a  layer  of  heavy  building  paper  is  placed  between  the 
silage  and  the  doors  when  filling  the  silo. 

Advantages  of  Twin  Silos.  Two  silos,  if  built  to- 
gether at  one  side  of  the  barn,  have  an  advantage  also  in 
dispensing  with  the  building  of  a  chute,  as  shown  in  the 
accompanying  illustration.  Both  silos  when  placed  as 
shown  here  can  be  filled  with  a  single  setting  of  the 
machinerv. 


Ground  Plan  of  Silos. 


The  chute  acts  as  an  exit  for  the  foul  air  from  the  barn. 
The  door  which  connects  the  barn  and  chute  is  tight-fit- 
ting and  slides  up  and  down  so  that  it  can  run  to  within 
a  foot  of  the  floor;  or,  if  desired,  can  be  closed  entirely. 
Using  the  chute  as  an  exit  for  the  barn  air  will  help  to 
keep  the  silage  from  freezing  because  of  the  comparative 
warmth  of  this  air.  Sufficient  light  is  provided  in  the 
silos  and  chute  by  putting  a  window  horizontally  over 
part  of  the  top  of  the  chute. 

Where  two  silos  are  used  one  can  certainly  be  emptied 
every  year  so  that  silage  in  no  case  needs  to  be  kept 
longer  than  eighteen  to  twenty  months.  Two  silos  are 
desirable  also  for  best  results  in  feeding  silage  during  the 
summer  or  early  fall,  as  well  as  during  the  winter. 

concre:te:-lined  sii.o. 
Fig.  10  shows  a  vertical  section  through  such  a  silo. 


THH   DAIRY   HERD 


59 


^^ 

/^ 

\ 

r^:^ 

^y 

nts  one-half  inch  beveled  sheeting. 

nts  two  by  four  inch  stud. 

Its  one-half  inch  sheeting. 

nts  beveled  lath. 

nts  cement  clinch  between  laths. 

nts  cement  lining  %  inch  thick. 

nts  two  by  four  inch  sill. 

nts  stone  foundation. 

Its  ground. 

' 

^ 

- 

- 

■ 

immu 

- 

p 

„ 

^\ 

'       f     T        t'^C^ 

• 

-  3l22 

"^ 

:^r^^ 

■y^^JQ-.-; 

"^  '.C  )C  Y  Y 

■^^ 

■jid-' 

•  -; :  C_X_JQL 

ICY  r^-'-. 

<^-l^l^i-t^^' 

>;;-.;•••. 

Fig.  10. 


59a  DAIRY   FARMING 

The  2  by  4  studding  are  set  12  inches  apart  on  a  cir- 
cular foundation,  and  the  3^  inch  sheeting  is  nailed  on 
horizontally  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  inside, 
including  the  floor,  is  cemented,  using  two  parts  of  sand 
to  one  of  cement. 

Ventilation  of  the  wall  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  silo. 
This  is  secured  by  leaving  a  small  open  space  at  the  top 
on  the  inside  between  the  lining  and  the  plate,  and  boring 
holes  near  the  sill  through  the  outside  sheeting,  covering 
them  with  wire  gauze  to  keep  rats  and  mice  out. 

Any  roof  that  sheds  water  is  suitable  for  a  silo,  as  the 
top  need  not  and  should  not  be  tight.  In  fact,  it  is  well 
to  have  a  small  opening  in  the  roof  to  provide  ventilation. 

For  convenience  the  door  of  the  silo  should  be  con- 
tinuous, extending  from  top  to  bottom.  Short  pieces  of 
matched  planks  are  commonly  used  for  a  continuous  door. 
These  are  put  in  one  by  one  as  the  filling  of  the  silo  pro- 
gresses ;  the  ends  being,  however,  first  covered  with  a 
paste  of  clayey  mud  to  assist  in  rendering  the  door  air- 
tight. Heavy  building  paper  tacked  on  the  inside  of  the 
door  will  also  help  to  exclude  the  air.  The  break  or 
weakness  in  the  silo  wall  caused  by  the  continuous  door  is 
overcome  by  running  iron  rods  horizontally  across  the 
door  at  short  intervals,  fastening  the  ends  to  the  studding 
on  either  side  of  the  door. 

Cutting  the  Corn.  Corn  for  the  silo  should  not  be  cut 
until  nearly  mature.  This  is  desirable  for  several  rea- 
sons. First,  and  most  important,  is  the  fact  that  corn  at 
maturity  contains  about  five  times  as  much  dry  matter  as 
it  does  at  the  tasseling  stage.  This  rapid  increase  in 
nutrients  from  the  tasseling  stage  on  is  forcibly  shown 
by  the  following  figures  obtained  at  the  New  York 
(Geneva)  experiment  station : 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  5gjj 

Table  VI— Showing  nutrients  in  corn  plant  at  different  stages 
of  growth. 

Dry  matter. 
Stage   of  growth.  per  acre 

(tons) 

Fully  tasseled , . .  _ 0.8 

Fully  silked I.5 

Kernels  watery  to  full  milk 2.3 

Kernels  glazing    , , 35 

Ripe   4.0 

This  table  teaches  an  important  lesson,  and  should  dis- 
courage farmers  from  cutting  young,  immature  corn, 
either  for  silage  or  soiling  purposes. 

Postponing  the  cutting  until  the  corn  has  reached  the 
denting  or  glazing  stage  also  makes  silage  of  better  qual- 
ity. At  this  stage  the  plant  is  less  watery  and  the  sugar 
has  been  largely  converted  into  starch,  thus  preventing 
excessive  fermentation  and  the  formation  of  an  undue 
amount  of  acid  in  the  silage. 

Filling  the  Silo.  When  the  corn  reaches  the  right 
stage  of  maturity,  it  should  be  cut  at  once  and  hauled 
from  the  field  to  the  silo,  where  the  entire  plant,  ears  and 
all,  is  run  through  an  ensilage  cutter  or  shredder,  cutting 
it  into  pieces  from  >^  to  i  inch  long.  The  ensilage  cut- 
ters are  provided  with  carriers  which  carry  the  silage  to 
any  height  desired  in  the  silo. 

Where  silos  are  rapidly  filled,  not  less  than  two  men 
should  remain  constantly  in  the  silo,  leveling  and  dis- 
tributing the  silage.  This  is  necessary  to  insure  uniform 
silage  and  an  even  settling.  The  silage  should  also  be 
tramped,  especially  along  the  edge  of  the  silo  where,  ow- 
ing to  the  friction  of  the  wall,  it  will  not  settle  as  readily 
as  elsewhere. 

In  case  of  rapid  filling  it  is  best  also  to  leave  the  silage 


59c 


DAIRY    FARMING 


to  settle  a  day  or  two  and  then  refill.    After  such  settling 
there  will  be  room  for  considerably  more  silage. 

Covering  for  Silage.  The  floor  and  walls  of  the  silo 
are  air  tight  by  construction,  and  where  the  silage  has 
been  thoroughly  packed,  none  should  spoil  at  these  places. 
At  the  top,  however,  where  the  silage  is  exposed  to  the 
air  and  where  it  is  less  solidly  packed  some  of  it  will 
naturally  spoil.  To  reduce  this  loss  of  silage  to  a  mini- 
mum, some  cheap  material  that  will  pack  well,  such  as 
old,  wet  hay,  for  example,  should  be  placed  on  top  of  the 
silage  immediately  after  filling,  and  this  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  thorough  wetting  so  as  to  hasten  the  settling 
and  matting  process.  Usually  a  dozen  barrels  of  water 
may  be  run  over  the  top  of  the  silage  to  good  advantage. 


^/LAGC    TRUCK 


Depth  of  Silage  that  Must  Daily  Be  Removed  from 
Top.  Owing  to  the  constant  contact  of  the  air  wath  the 
top  layer  of  silage,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  a  horizontal 
layer  of  silage  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  i}^  inches  daily 
to  prevent  any  from  spoiling.  If  this  fact  is  kept  in  mind 
when  building  a  silo,  its  diameter  can  be  made  such  as  to 
make  possible  the  feeding  of  a  layer  of  this  depth  daily. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  59^1 

Cost  of  Silos  and  Machinery.  The  cost  of  silos 
varies  with  the  cost  of  materials  and  the  method  of  con- 
struction. An  80-ton  silo  of  the  Gurler  type  can  be  built 
for  about  $150.  Other  silos  of  the  same  capacity,  but 
made  of  different  materials  may  cost  double  this  amount. 

A  moderate  sized  ensilage  cutter  that  would  answer  for 
an  80-ton  silo  would  also  cost  about  $150. 

Where  some  form  of  power  must  be  purchased  a  gaso- 
line engine  is  recommended  because  of  the  many  other 
uses  it  may  serve  on  a  dairy  farm.     (See  Chap.  XV.) 

A  moderate  sized  ensilage  cutter  when  not  too  heavily 
fed  can  be  operated  satisfactorily  with  an  eight  horse 
power  gasoline  engine.  The  cost  of  such  an  engine  is 
about  $250. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

METHOD   OF    KEEPIXCx    RECORDS   OF    INDIVIDUAL   COWS. 

Necessity  of  Keeping  Records.  Through  the  efforts 
of  experiment  stations,  private  indivickials,  and  Hoard's 
Dairyman  in  particular,  tests  have  been  made  of  hundreds 
of  herds  throughout  the  country,  only  to  find  that  in 
practically  all  of  them  some  cows  are  kept  at  an  actual 
loss  to  their  owners.  The  failure  on  the  part  of  the 
owners  to  detect  the  unprofitable  cows  may  be  traced 
to  three  causes:  (i)  it  may  be  the  result  of  reckoning 
with  the  herd  as  a  whole,  rather  than  the  individual 
members  composing  it;  (2)  it  may  be  the  result  of  ignor- 
ing the  quality  of  the  milk;  or  (3)  it  may  be  due  to 
attempts  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  individual  members 
by  giiessiiig  at  the  flow  of  milk  for  a  week  or  two  when 
the  cows  are  doing  their  best. 

The  lack  of  business  method  in  reckoning  with  the 
herd  as  a  whole,  rather  than  with  the  individuals  com- 
posing it,  is  too  apparent  to  need  further  explanation. 
The  same  may  be  said  with  reference  to  the  practice 
of  ignoring  the  quality  of  the  milk.  Where  the  owner 
guesses  the  annual  yield  from  the  quantity  of  milk  pro- 
duced for  a  week  or  two  during  the  lactation  period, 
he  is  likely  to  err  in  three  important  respects:  (i) 
guessing  in  itself  is  bound  to  lead  more  or  less  frequently 
to  grossly  erroneous  estimates  ;  (2)  yearly  estimates  based 
upon  a  few  weeks'  production  ignore  the  fact  that  some 
cows  yield  milk  eleven   or  twelve  months   of  the  year, 

60 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


61 


filg     CHATILLON'S      '^* 

IMPROVED  CmcULAR 
SPRING  BALANCE 
.;  TO  WEIGH  30  lb 
BY   OUNCES 


'while  others  produce  only  seven  or  eight  months;  and 
(3)  estimates  of  this  kind  fail  to  consider  that  some 
cows  that  yield  heavily  for  a  short  time  and  then  drop 
off  to  a  medium  flow,  may  be  exceeded  in  total  pro- 
duction by  others  that  never  yield  heavily  at  any  period, 
but  whose  flow  is  quite  steady  from  beginning  to  end 
of  the  lactation  period. 

It  is  evident  from  what  has  been 
said  that  there  is  but  one  method  by 
which  we  can  tell  with  certainty  the 
value  of  the  individual  cows  in  a 
herd,  and  that  method  consists  in 
weighing  and  testing  the  milk  and 
keeping  a  record  of  the  feed  con- 
sumed for  the  entire  period  of  lacta- 
tion. 

Daily  Record  of  Milk.  Keep- 
ing a  daily  record  of  the  weight  of 
the  milk  of  each  cow  is  a  very  sim- 
ple and  inexpensive  task.  All  that 
is  necessary  is  to  have  some  form  of 
scales  and  a  ruled  sheet  of  paper 
upon  which  to  record  the  weights  of 
milk  morning  and  night.  Fig.  11 
shows  a  cheap  and  convenient  scales 
which  w^eigh  from  one-tenth  pound 
to  30  pounds.  A  convenient  milk 
record  sheet  is  shown  below. 

The  daily  weighing  of  the  milk 
from  each  cow  is  valuable  also  in 
serving  as  a  check  upon  the  work  of 
th.e  milkers.  A  rapid  shrinking  in  the  milk  is  easily 
detected  on  the  milk  sheet  and  mav  be  entirelv  due  to 


Fig.  11.— Milk  Scales. 
Weigh  0.1  to  30  pounds. 


62 


DAIRY   FARMING 


Milk  Record  for  Month  of- t90 


Date. 

Nfttne  o 

r  Cow. 

6 

a 

1 

Lbs. 

Lb* 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

1 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

1 

I 

2 

AM 

P.   M. 

I 

:        1 

3 

A.  M. 

P.  M. 

1 

1           1 

, 

1           i           i 

1 

4 

A.  M. 
P.  M. 

'                      ' 

'           1 

5 

A.M. 
P    M. 

1 

6 

A.  M. 
P.  M. 

'                      '           1 

I 

7 

A.  M. 
P    M 

1           ,           , 

8 

A.M. 
P.  M 

i 

9 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

i 

' 

i 

10 

A.M. 
P.   M. 

' 

1          ' 

A.  M 
P.  M. 

1 

\ 

12 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

' 

13 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

1 

A.  M. 

P.  M. 

! 

15 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

1 

1          1 

1 

16 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

17 

A.  M. 
P.  M. 

' 

18 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

19 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

:           1 

'          '          i 

20 

A.M. 
P.   M. 

1        i 

1      1      ! 

1 

.. .  1     ,        ,    1 

21 

A.  M. 

P.  M. 

•    ^    1 

SS 

A.M. 
P.  M 

1    '        ^    i 

23 

A.M. 
P.   M 

'    1 

!          ' 

: 

24 

AM 

P.  M. 

■         1 

1                 ' 

26 

A.M. 
P.  M 

: 

1 

1 

26 

A.M. 
P.  M. 

1 

i 

! 

iW 

A.M. 

^         A.M.    '                 i                         :                I                         !         ^         i 

28           P.  M.     '                                                       1                     1 

;          i          ; 

-Q            A.  M.                                                               1 

1 

I 

^            P.  M 

^           A.M.                                                 i 

1 — 

^           P.  M. 

j 

! 

Total 

1       !       , 

I 

THE   DAIRY   HERD 


63 


careless  milking.  Great  daily  fluctuations  in  the  yield 
of  milk  are  also  in  most  cases  the  result  of  indififerent 
and  inefficient  milkers. 

Collecting  Samples  of  Milk  for  Testing.  The  milk 
from  each  cow  should  be  tested  about  once  a  month  dur- 
ing the  whole  period  of  lactation.  A  satisfactory  way  of 
doing  this  is  to  collect  what  is  known  as  a  composite 
sample,  which  consists  in  securing  about  one-half  ounce 
of  milk  from  each  of  six  consecutive  milkings  and  placing 
this  in  a  half  pint  composite  sample  jar  (Fig.   12)  con- 


Fig.  12.— 

Composite 
Sample  Jar. 


Fig.  13.— Test  Bottle  Rack, 


taining  a  small  amount  of  preservative.  A  test  of  this 
composite  sample  will  represent  the  average  per  cent 
of  butterfat  for  the  period  during  which  the  sample 
Vv-as  taken  and  will  serve  with  sufficient  accuracy  as  the 
average  test  for  the  entire  month. 

Each  composite  sample  jar  should  be  carefully  labeled 
by  placing  the  name  or  number  of  the  cow  upon  it.  A 
convenient  rack  for  these  jars  is  shown  in  Fig.  13. 


64  DAIRY   FARMING 

Sampling  and  Samplers.  Immediately  after  milking 
the  milk  is  poured  from  one  pail  into  another  several 
times  and  then  sampled  at  once.  The  sampling  may  he 
done  by  either  of  two  methods  :  ( i )  by  means  of  a  one- 
half  or  one  ounce  dipper  shown  in  Fig.  14;  or  (2)  by 
means  of  a  narrow  tube  shown  in  Fig.  15. 


Fig.  14.—  Fig.  15  _ 

Dipper  Samp-  Thief  Samp- 

ler, ler. 

The  dipper  furnishes  the  simplest  and  easiest  means 
of  sampling  milk.  Where  the  milk  is  thoroughly  mixed 
and  where  the  quantity  is  practically  the  same  morning 
and  night,  this  method  of  sampling  is  accurate. 

With  the  tube  method  the  sample  is  always  propor- 
tionate to  the  quantity  of  milk  and  it  will  draw  a  reo- 


THE   DAIRY  HERD  65 

resentalive  sample  even  when  the  milk  has  stood  undis- 
turbed a  few  minutes.  This  method  of  sampling  should 
be  employed,  therefore,  where  there  is  much  variation  in 
the  quantity  of  night's  and  morning's  milk,  or  where 
the  milk  is  not  apt  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  before  samp- 
ling. 

Preservatives.  Milk  can  not  be  satisfactorily  tested 
after  it  has  soured,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  securing 
an  accurate  sample.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  place  a 
small  amount  of  preservative  in  the  composite  sample 
jar  before  the  sampling  is  begun. 

The  best  preservatives  for  this  purpose  are  corrosive 
sublimate,  formalin  and  bichromate  of  potash.  All  of 
these  are  poisons  and  care  must  be  taken  to  place  them 
where  children  and  others  unfamiliar  with  their  poisonous 
properties,  can  not  have  access  to  them.  For  conve- 
nience, the  bichromate  of  potash  and  corrosive  sublimate 
have  been  put  up  in  tablet  form,  each  tablet  containing 
enough  preservative  to  keep  a  pint  of  milk  sweet  from 
one  to  two  weeks.  The  bichromate  of  potash  can  be 
procured  from  all  druggists,  and  a  quantity  not  to  exceed 
the  size  of  a  pea  should  be  added  to  each  pint  composite 
jar.  A  larger  quantity  is  liable  to  interfere  with  the 
testing. 

Testing  With  the  Babcock  Test.  The  method  of 
operating  the  Babcock  test  is  explained  in  detail  in  chap- 
ter XVIII. 

Calculating  Butterfat  and  Butter  Yield.  The 
monthly  butterfat  yield  of  each  cow  is  determined  by 
multiplying  the  total  pounds  of  milk  for  the  month  by 
the  per  cent  of  butterfat  it  contains.  For  example,  if 
cow  No.  I  produced  850  lbs.  of  milk  testing  4.2%  fat,  the 


66  DAIRY  FARMING 

total  fat  in  this  milk  would  equal  850X4.2,  or  35.70 
pounds. 

Since  butter  contains  salt,  water,  casein  and  only  about 
83%  butterfat,  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  yield  of 
butter  will  exceed  that  of  butterfat,  provided  the  losses 
in  skimming  and  churning  are  normal.  The  general 
rule  in  estimating  the  butter  yield  is  to  increase  the  but- 
terfat by  one-sixth.  Thus  the  estimated  butter  yield 
of  the  35.70  pounds  of  fat  given  above  would  equal  35.70 
Xi  1-6  or  41.65  pounds.  The  difference  between  the 
butterfat  and  the  actual  butter  yield  is  known  as  the 
''overrun." 

Estimating  the  Cost  of  Feed.  The  final  test  of  the 
value  of  a  cow  is  the  economy  of  production.  In  addition, 
therefore,  to  knowing  the  butterfat  yield,  we  must  also 
know  the  cost  of  the  feed  she  consumed  in  producing  it. 
Obviously  a  daily  weighing  of  the  feed,  especially  as 
concerns  roughage,  is  not  practical  upon  most  dairy  farms. 
If  the  feed  which  each  cow  receives  is  weighed  about 
twice  a  month  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  feed 
consumed  can  be  obtained  by  considering  the  weighed 
amount  of  feed  as  the  average  daily  consumption  for  the 
month.  To  illustrate,  let  us  suppose  that  cow  No.  X  is 
doing  full  work  on  a  ration  consisting  of  8  pounds  of 
wheat  bran,  2  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal,  40  pounds 
of  corn  silage  and  8  pounds  of  corn  stover.  By  carefully 
observing  the  volume  of  the  weighed  amounts  of  each 
feed,  approximate  quantities  may  be  measured  for  two 
weeks,  after  which  a  day's  feed  is  again  weighed  and  the 
measuring  continued  for  the  remainder  of  the  month. 
In  this  way  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  quantity  of 
feed  consumed  for  the  month  can  be  obtained  with  a  small 
amount  of  labor.  By  multiplying  the  total  quantities 
of   the   different   feeds    fed   during  th^  month,   bv  their 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


67 


respective  values  per  ton,  we  obtain  an  approximate  cost 
of  the  feed  fed  each  cow  during  that  period. 

Yearly  Record  of  Milk,  Butterfat  and  Feed.    At  the 

end  of  each  month  a  record  of  each  cow's  milk,  butterfat 
test,  and  butterfat  production,  as  well  as  an  estimate 
of  the  cost  of  feed,  should  be  entered  upon  a  yearly 
record  sheet  like  that  shown  below. 


HERD  RECORD  FOR  YEAR 

190    . 

NAME  OF  COW 

NAME  OF  COW 

Month 

1 

c 
v> 

u 

u 

1 

fa 

y 

s 

^fa 

1 

1 

[Butter  Fat, 

1       lbs. 

•a  M 
OJ  o 





1 
1 

Total 



CHAPTER  X. 

MILKING. 

Importance  of  the  Milking  Process.  The  profits 
from  a  dairy  herd  are  far  more  largely  dependent  upon 
the  conditions  under  which  the  milk  is  drawn  than  dairy- 
men are  commonly  led  to  believe.  For  example,  hundreds 
of  instances  could  be  mentioned  where  milk  drawn  under 
cleanly  conditions  has  been  sold  for  one  hundred  per 
cent  more  than  that  drawn  under  uncleanly  conditions. 
But  milking  from  the  standpoint  of  cleanliness  is 
discussed  in  the  chapter  on  sanitary  milk  pro- 
duction and  will,  therefore,  not  be  considered  here. 
The  conditions  that  will  be  treated  in  the  following 
pages  are  those  which  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the 
yield  of  milk  and  butterfat,  and  which  are  no  less  import- 
ant in  determining  the  profits  from  the  herd  than  are  those 
concerning  cleanliness. 

Milk  Function  Controlled  by  Nervous  System.  The 
various  factors  bearing  upon  the  secretion  of  milk  are 
readily  understood  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  is  closely  associated  with  the  nervous 
organization  of  the  cow.  Whatever  reacts  upon  her  nerv- 
ous system  will  react  in  like  degree  upon  the  secretion 
of  milk. 

Value  of  Kind  and  Gentle  Treatment.  It  is  owing 
to  her  high  nerve  development  that  a  cow  is  so  very 
sensitive  to  excitement,  boisterousness,  unkindness,  rough 
treatment    and    other    allied    abuses    which    always    react 

68 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  69 

so  unfavorably  upon  the  production  of  milk  and  butterfat. 
Especially  disastrous  are  the  effects  of  abuses  admin- 
istered just  previous  to  or  during  milking.  Yet  how  fre- 
quently are  dogs  allowed  to  chase  the  cows  to  the  stable, 
and  how  often  are  attendants  seen  with  clubs  which  they 
use  as  aids  in  getting  the  cows  into  their  proper  places! 
In  addition,  the  language  and  boisterousness  that  accom- 
panies all  this  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  animals  are 
treated  as  offending  brutes,  instead  of  willing,  sensitive 
mothers  who  are  scarcely  any  less  sensitive  to  harsh 
words  than  are  human  mothers.  Make  pets  out  of  your 
cows  by  kind  treatment,  for  kindness  is  never  without 
compensation,  no  matter  how,  when  or  where  applied. 

Elaboration  of  Milk  During  Milking,  If,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  remembered  that 
the  larger  portion  of  the  milk  is  secreted  during  the 
process  of  milking,  the  importance  of  giving  a  cow  the 
very  best  care  and  treatment  at  this  time  will  be  fully 
apparent.  Furthermore,  the  fact  that  most  of  the  milk 
is  formed  during  milking,  materially  assists  in  explaining 
why  different  milkers  secure  such  varying  quantities  of 
milk  and  butterfat  from  the  same  cow. 

Effect  of  Change  of  Milkers,  From  what  has  been 
said  it  is  easily  seen  that  frequent  changes  of  milkers  are 
certain  to  react  unfavorably  upon  the  milk  and  butterfat 
production.  A  cow  that  has  become  thoroughly  accus- 
tomed to  a  certain  milker  will  feel  restless  and  uneasy 
with  a  new  milker,  which  is  nowhere  more  plainly  indi- 
cated than  on  the  milk  sheet.  A  change  of  milkers, 
furthermore,  always  means  a  change  in  the  manner  of 
milking,  and,  therefore,  a  change  in  the  stimulation  of 
the  udder.  Since  the  stimulation  of  the  udder  by  the 
milker  is  the  cause  of  njlk  secretion,  it  is  evident  that 


70  DAIRY   FARMING 

a  change  in  the  method  of  stimulation  will  result  in 
a  reduction  of  milk  and  butterfat  production.  The  wise 
dairyman  will  therefore  avoid  changing  milkers  as  far 
as  possible,  and  will  insist  that  the  same  milker  always 
milk  the  same  cows. 

Fast  Versus  Slow  Milking.  The  larger  yields  are 
secured  from  fast  milking.  This  may  possibly  be  ex- 
plained upon  the  basis  of  udder  stimulation.  The  fast 
milker  will  stimulate  the  udder  to  a  greater  degree  than 
the  slow  milker,  and  the  extra  stimulus  thus  given  evi- 
dently favors  the  secretion  in  the  milk  glands,  as  indicated 
by  the  actual  increased  production. 

Importance  of  Withdrawing  All  the  Milk.  One 
of  the  most  important  factors  in  milking  is  securing  all 
the  milk  at  each  milking;  that  is,  milking  a  cow  dry. 
Whatever  milk  is  left  in  the  udder  from  one  milking 
to  another  is  not  only  lost  to  the  milker,  but  actually 
acts  as  a  check  upon  further  secretion,  so  that  the 
habitual  practice  of  not  milking  cows  ''clean"  or  "dry" 
results  in  a  gradual  shrinking  of  the  milk  flow  and  an 
early  "drying  up"  of  the  cow.  Furthermore,  the  loss 
of  the  strippings  means  the  loss  of  the  very  best  milk. 
The  first  milk  drawn  from  a  cow  usually  contains  less 
than  1%  fat,  while  the  strippings  may  contain  as  much 
as  14%. 

Regularity  of  Milking  and  Feeding.  The  man  who 
is  looking  for  satisfactory  returns  from  his  dairy  must 
make  regularity  a  watchword.  Cows  must  be  milked  reg- 
ularly at  a  fixed  time  morning  and  night.  Milking 
half  an  hour  sooner  or  later  than  the  fixed  time  interferes 
much  more  seriously  with  the  milk  yield  than  is  com- 
monly supposed.  Xot  only  does  irregularity  of  milking 
reduce  the  yield  of  milk  and  butterfat,  but  irregularity  in 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  71 

feeding  leads  to  the  same  result.  If,  for  example,  cows 
that  have  been  accustomed  to  receive  their  concentrates 
before  milking,  should  receive  them  at  times  after  milk- 
ing, a  reduction  in  the  yield  would  be  at  once  noticed. 
This  is  just  what  might  be  expected.  Withholding  the 
concentrates  occasionally,  will  make  the  cows  restless  and 
discontented,  which  will  sufficiently  jar  their  nervous  sys- 
tem to  cause  a  perceptible  drop  in  the  milk  flow.  Sudden 
changes  of  feeds  will  act  in  a  similar  manner. 

Time  Between  Milkings.  The  periods  between  milk- 
ings  should  be  as  nearly  equal  as  possible.  For  example, 
if  cows  are  being  milked  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
they  are  also  preferably  milked  at  six  o'clock  at  night. 
The  more  uniform  the  periods  between  milkings,  the  more 
uniform  the  secretion  of  milk,  and  consequently  the 
greater  the  production.  The  time  between  milkings  also 
influences  the  richness  of  the  milk.  If  the  two  milking 
periods  are  not  equal,  it  will  be  found  that  the  milk  of  the 
shorter  period  will  be  the  richer. 

Frequency  of  Milking.  As  a  rule  nothing  is  gained 
by  milking  a  cow  three  times  instead  of  twice  daily.  In 
the  case  of  exceptionally  heavy  milkers  whose  udders 
become  unduly  distended,  there  is,  however,  a  distinct 
advantage  in  milking  three  times  daily.  The  fact  that 
milk  from  the  shorter  intervals  between  milkings  has 
been  found  richer  than  that  from  the  longer  intervals, 
has  driven  some  to  the  practice  of  milking  average  pro- 
ducers three  times  a  day,  with  the  hope  of  permanently 
increasing  the  test.  While  under  such  circumstances  the 
test  may  be  raised  somewhat,  the  raise  is  only  a  temporary 
one. 

The  Value  of  a  Good  Milker.  From  what  has  already 
been  said,,  it  is  evident  that  the  milker  plays  an  important 


72  DAIRY   FARMING 

part  in  the  milk  and  buttcrfat  production  of  cows.  The 
following  data  secured  by  H.  B.  Gurler  from  his  own 
herd  fully  illustrate  the  importance  of  a  good  milker.  As 
a  result  of  two  winters'  tests,  Mr.  Gurler  found  that 
the  cows  milked  by  the  poorest  milker  had  fallen  ofif  9.5 
pounds  per  head  in  three  months,  while  the  shrinkage 
of  the  cows  milked  by  the  best  milker  during  the  same 
period  was  only  1.88  pounds  per  head,  a  difference  at 
the  end  of  three  months  of  7.62  pounds  of  milk  per  cow 
daily  in  favor  of  the  best  milker.  This  fully  explains 
why  some  milkers  are  cheap  at  $40  per  month,  while 
others  are  really  expensive  at  less  than  half  this  amount. 

The  Milk  Scales  and  Babcock  Tester  as  a  Teacher 
of  Correct  Milking.  The  strongest  searchlight  used  for 
the  discovery  of  leaks  in  the  dairy  herd  consists  of  a  pair 
of  scales  and  a  Babcock  tester.  These  will  not  only  tell 
which  cows  are  profitable  and  w^hich  are  not,  but,  if 
rightly  employed,  will  also  tell  which  milkers  are  paying 
for  their  salaries  and  which  are  not.  Milkers  should  be 
paid  according  to  the  quality  of  their  work,  and  not,  as  is 
commonly  the  case,  according  to  the  number  of  hours' 
service. 

Milking  Machines.  \\'hether  the  milking  machine 
may  be  considered  an  unqualified  success  can  not  be  posi- 
tively stated  at  the  present  time.  More  time  and  tests  are 
needed  to  warrant  a  positive  statement.  It  may  be  stated, 
however,  that  many  of  our  foremost  dairymen  have 
endorsed  the  milking  machine  as  a  successful  milker, 
and  this,  too,  after  apparently  thorough  tests  extending 
over  periods  of  many  months.  Experiment  stations  also 
report  favorable  results  from  machine  milking. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

HERD   .MAXAGEMEXT. 

Winter  Dairying,  rroducing  the  bulk  of  milk  during 
the  winter  has  four  distinct  advantages  :  ( i )  prices  for 
butter  and  cheese  are  higher  at  this  time  of  the  year; 
(2)  cows  will  milk  longer  when  calving  in  the  fall  than 
in  the  spring;  (3)  labor  is  more  plentiful  at  this  time 
of  the  year;  and  (4)  it  is  possible  to  feed  cows  cheaper 
during  the  winter  than  summer. 

1.  As  a  rule  prices  for  butter  are  from  50  to  75  per 
cent  higher  in  winter  than  in  summer.  Prices  for  cheese 
average  about  50  per  cent  higher  in  winter.  Indeed 
prices  for  milk  in  general  are  higher  in  winter  than  sum- 
mer. It  is  evident  that  from  the  standpoint  of  higher 
prices  alone,  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  produce  the 
bulk  of  the  milk  during  the  winter. 

2.  When  cows  calve  in  the  spring,  they  usually 
have  pasturage  enough  for  a  good  flow  of  milk  until 
about  August.  At  this  time  pastures  as  a  rule  get  short 
and  cows  rapidly  fall  off  in  milk.  By  the  time  stable 
feeding  begins  they  have  dropped  off  so  much  that  they 
can  not  be  brought  back  to  a  fair  flow  of  milk  even  on 
good  feed.  The  result  is  a  reduced  yield  of  milk  and  an 
early  "drying  up"  of  the  cows. 

When  cows  calve  in  the  fall  the  expectation  is  to  pro- 
duce the  main  flow  of  milk  during  the  v/inter  and  conse- 
quently the  cows  are  well  supplied  with  feed  until  they 
are  turned  out  on  .good  pasturage  in  the  spring.     In  this 

73 


74  DAIRY  FARMING 

way  the  cows  maintain  a  good  flow  of  milk  until  the  best 
period  of  grazing  is  over.  The  inevitable  result  is  an 
extension  of  the  period  of  lactation  and  a  greater  total 
production  of  milk.  An  increased  production  is  also 
favored  by  the  fact  that  cows  yield  the  greater  share 
of  their  milk  during  a  time  when  they  are  least  troubled 
with  flies  and  excessive  heat. 

3.  It  is  an  important  advantage  to  be  able  to  do  most 
of  the  milking  when  other  farm  duties  demand  least 
attention.  By  having  the  cows  calve  in  the  fall,  most  of 
the  milking  is  done  during  the  winter. 

4.  An  acre  of  land  planted  to  corn  ordinarily  yields 
as  much  feed  as  two  or  three  acres  in  pasturage.  When 
the  cows  calve  in  the  fall  there  is  bound  to  be  more  silage 
produced  than  when  the  cows  calve  in  the  spring,  and 
in  so  far  as  this  is  true,  the  cost  of  feed  is  lessened.  In 
the  case  of  high  priced  land,  the  saving  effected  by 
reducing  the  acreage  one-half  or  two-thirds  by  feeding 
a  great  deal  of  silage  in  place  of  pasturage  must  be  evi- 
dent. 

Feeding  the  Bull.  During  the  early  life  of  the  bull 
when  he  is  reasonably  tractable,  there  is  no  better  place 
for  him  than  a  strongly  enclosed  pasture.  This  will  sup- 
ply him  with  the  right  kind  of  feed,  give  him  plenty  of 
fresh  air  and  sunshine,  and  afford  him  needful  exercise. 
When  stall-fed,  he  is  preferably  supplied  with  nitrogenous 
roughage,  such  as  good  clean  clover  hay.  W'hen  the 
roughage  consists  of  corn  stover  or  oat  straw,  the  bull 
should  be  given  a  fair  allowance  of  wheat  bran,  oats  or 
similar  concentrates.  It  is  always  desirable  to  supply  a 
stall-fed  bull  a  moderate  amount  of  succulent  roughage, 
such  as  roots  and  silage. 

Management  of  Bull.    A  bull  should  never  be  allowed 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


75 


to  run  with  the  herd,  but  is  preferably  kept  where  he  is  in 
sight  of  the  cows.  He  should  have  a  ring  placed  in  his 
nose  when  ten  or  twelve  months  old.  As  a  rule  it  is 
best  not  to  tie  him  by  the  ring,  but  to  give  him  the  free- 
dom of  a  box  stall.  He  should  be  given  enough  exercise 
to  keep  him  tractable  and  in  good  breeding  condition.  By 
all  means  have  him  dehorned. 

Never  trifle  with  a  bull.  He  should  be  treated  gently 
yet  firmly.  He  must  know  he  has  a  master.  It  is  im- 
portant to  teach  him  early  to  be  led  with  a  staff  fastened 
to  the  ring  in  his  nose. 


ELO^/rreo  n-^/^/f. 

III 

TREAD 

poweR 

j  \ 

^ 

A 

\ 

BOX 
'STALL 
)    lO'XfZ' 

BR£:£'0/A/6 
PEN. 

&XIO' 

^^cA 

III 

B 


Bvli     Pen 
SOX  50' 


Fig.  16.— Bull  Pen.s. 


76  DAIRY  FARMING 

It  is  a  pfreat  misfortune  to  have  so  many  valuable 
bulls  disposed  of  at  the  first  signs  of  unruliness.  When 
a  bull  has  proven  his  value  as  a  breeder  by  his  own 
offspring,  he  should  be,  and  can  be,  retained  even  though 
his  disposition  becomes  threatening,  by  quartering  him  as 
shown  in  Fig.  i6. 

B  represents  a  pen  wdiich  the  author  has  successfully 
used  a  number  of  years.  It  consists  of  an  enclosure  with 
stable  and  breeding  pen  as  shown  in  the  preceding  illus- 
tration (B).  The  bull  run  is  fifty  feet  square,  including 
the  stable,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  solid  board  fence  six  and 
one-half  feet  high.  The  cow  is  bred  in  this  pen  by  tying 
her  to  the  front  end  and  then  letting  in  the  bull  by  open- 
ing the  stable  door.  The  latter  closes  the  pen  when 
opened  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

While  a  bull  can  be  managed  in  a  pen  such  as  is  here 
described  without  coming  in  contact  with  him,  it  is  best 
to  lead  him  out  occasionally  with  a  stick  snapped  into  the 
ring  of  his  nose. 

A  represents  a  yard  or  pen  essentially  as  recommended 
by  the  Illinois  Station.  At  one  end  of  the  yard  is  located 
a  box  stall  in  which  the  bull  is  fed  and  sheltered.  The 
other  end  is  divided  into  two  compartments,  one  con- 
taining a  tread  power,  the  other  serving  as  a  breeding 
pen.  The  gate  H  may  be  turned  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left,  closing  either  of  the  two  compartments  as  may  be 
desired. 

The  tread  power  furnishes  the  means  of  exercising 
the  bull.  When  he  is  wanted  on  the  tread  power,  a 
rope  is  attached  to  his  ring  while  he  is  af  the  manger  and 
the  attendant,  who  walks  over  the  elevated  narrow  walk, 
leads  him  onto  the  power  and  shuts  the  gate  be- 
hind him.  While  the  bull  is  taking  his  exercise  the 
attendant  cleans  and  prepares  his  stall.     When  the  bull 


THE   DAIRY   HURD  77 

is  wanted  in  the  breeding  pen  he  is  similarly  led  along 
the  other  side  of  the  yard.  Water  and  feed  can  be 
supplied  from  the  outside. 

It  is  evident  that  a  yard  of  this  kind  guarantees  abso- 
lute safety,  provides  good  exercise  for  the  bull,  which 
at  the  same  time  furnishes  the  power  to  pump  water, 
separate  the  milk,  and  do  other  useful  things. 

An  important  matter  in  the  management  of  a  bull 
is  to  prevent  excessive  service.  A  bull  should  be  over 
one  year  old  before  he  is  allowed  to  serve  and  the  services 
the  first  season  should  be  limited  to  10  or  15,  depending 
upon  the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  bull.  The  second 
season  he  may  serve  25  cows.  And  while  some  bulls 
have  apparently  successfully  served  as  many  as  40  or 
more  cows  in  a  season,  it  will  be  found  good  policy, 
as  a  rule,  to  restrict  the  number  of  services  as  much  as 
possible,  especially  if  the  usefulness  of  the  bull  is  to  be 
preserved  for  a  long  time. 

Breeding  Rack.  When  heifers  or  small  cows  are  bred 
to  heavy  bulls,  a  breeding  rack  should  be  used.  This 
may  be  constructed  as  follows:  Place  tv/o  posts  in  the 
ground  3^  feet  high  and  about  i^  feet  apart.  In  a  line 
parallel  with  these  posts  and  8  or  9  feet  away,  place  two 
more  posts  i^  feet  high  and  20  to  22  inches  apart. 
Connect  the  short  and  long  posts  with  2x12  inch  planks, 
leaving  a  space  of  18  inches  wide  between  the  planks  at 
the  higher  end,  and  20  to  22  inches  wide  at  the  lower  end, 
which  serves  as  the  entrance.  This  space  will  fit  most 
cows,  but  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  planks  adjustable  so 
that  the  space  between  may  be  increased  or  decreased 
according  to  the  size  of  the  cows.  The  arrangement  as 
described  permits  the  bull's  front  feet  to  rest  on  the 
planks  during  service.     The  planks  should  be  provided 


78  DAIRY   FARMING 

with  cleats  and  must  be  strongly  supported  at  the  middle. 
An  adjustable  stanchion  is  used  to  hold  the  cow  in  posi- 
tion. 

Age  to  Breed  Heifers.  Heifers  should  be  bred  to 
drop  their  calves  when  about  two  years  old.  In  cases 
where  there  is  a  particular  lack  of  development  in  growth 
and  general  vigor,  it  would  doubtless  be  a  distinct 
advantage  to  have  heifers  drop  their  calves  at  26,  28  or 
even  30  months  of  age. 

Early  breeding  has  the  effect  of  stunting  the  growth 
of  the  animal,  and  thus  making  maximum  development 
impossible.  The  heifer  that  is  bred  at  one  year  of  age 
is  obliged  to  turn  a  portion  of  the  feed  that  is  naturally 
intended  for  her  own  development  to  that  of  the  foetus. 
After  the  calf  is  dropped  a  still  larger  portion  of  the  feed 
intended  for  her  own  development  is  utilized  for  the 
production  of  milk. 

While  the  stunting  effect  from  early  breeding  has  its 
drawback,  there  is  also  danger  in  delaying  the  breeding 
too  long.  It  is  doubtless  correctly  maintained  that  early 
breeding  has  the  advantage  of  early  stimulating  the  milk 
giving  function  of  the  animal,  and  that  heifers  that  drop 
their  calves  at,  say  three  years  old,  are  apt  to  develop  a 
beefy  tendency  at  the  expense  of  the  dairy  tendency. 

It  is  evident  that  this  matter  calls  for  a  great  deal  of 
judgment.  If  a  heifer  leans  toward  the  beefy  tendency, 
doubtless  it  is  policy  to  breed  her  rather  young.  If. 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  complete  absence  of  a  beefy 
tendency  and  an  indication  of  a  slow  development  and 
delicacy,  no  one  would  question  the  wisdom  of  breeding 
such  an  animal  relatively  late. 

Record  Date  of  Service  and  Calving.  This  is  import- 
ant for  three  reasons  :     ( i )  it  enables  one  to  confine  cows 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  79 

in  box  stalls  about  a  week  before  calving;  (2)  it  enables 
one  to  tell  the  exact  length  of  time  cows  have  carried 
their  calves,  and  therefore  makes  possible  the  detection 
of  premature  births  and  abortions;  (3)  one  knows  the 
exact  length  of  the  lactation  period  of  each  cow. 

1.  Where  the  date  of  service  is  not  known,  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  cows  are  obliged  to  calve  in  their 
stalls  or  stanchions.  Such  unfortunate  occurrences  should 
be  prevented  by  confining  cows  in  roomy  box  stalls  not 
less  than  a  week  before  they  are  due  to  calve. 

2.  In  case  the  date  of  service  is  not  known,  it  is 
perfectly  possible  for  cows  to  drop  living  abortions  which 
the  owner  may  mistake  for  mature  calves.  Where  the 
abortion  is  of  a  contagious  nature  the  danger  of  mistakes 
of  this  kind  is  too  evident  to  need  further  explanation. 

3.  Most  dairymen  appreciate  the  value  of  persistent 
milkers,  yet  comparatively  few  are  able  to  tell,  even 
approximately,  the  length  of  the  lactation  period  of  the 
different  cows  in  the  herd.  The  only  certain  way  of 
knowing  how  long  each  cow  produces  milk  after  calving 
is  to  record  the  date  of  calving. 

"Drying  Off"  Cows.  As  a  rule  it  is  desirable  to 
have  cows  "go  dry"  at  least  a  month  before  calving. 
This  has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  supply  of  nutrients 
for  the  development  of  the  foetus,  as  well  as  enabling 
the  cow  to  store  up  some  reserve  energy  which  will  put 
her  in  better  physical  condition  for  the  act  of  parturition 
and  the  period  immediately  following. 

Where  it  is  desirable  to  hasten  the  "drying  off,"  the 
following  method  will  be  of  value.  Start  drying  off  by 
not  milking  the  cow  clean.  This  will  quickly  reduce 
the  flow  to  a  point  where  it  is  safe  to  skip  every  other 
milking.      After   a    few    days,    or    perhaps    a   week,    the 


80  DAIRY   FARMING 

milk  will  be  sufficiently  reduced  to  warrant  milking  only 
every  other  day.  A  very  short  time  after  this,  as  a 
rule,  it  will  be  found  safe  to  stop  milking  entirely. 

In  case  of  very  persistent  milkers,  it  is  better  to  milk 
them  close  up  to,  if  not  up  to,  calving,  rather  than 
force  the  "drying  off"  process  too  much. 

Dehorning.  The  advantage  of  dehorning  is  now  pretty 
generally  recognized.  The  absence  of  horns  makes  cow^s 
more  quiet  and  docile,  and  saves  them  many  tortures 
that  are  ordinarily  inflicted  when  the  horns  are*  retained. 

The  horns  may  be  removed  either  by  sawing  them 
off  or  by  cutting  them  off  wath  an  instrument  known  as 
a  clipper.  The  simplest  and  most  humane  method  of 
removing  horns,  however,  is  the  use  of  caustic  potash 
soon  after  the  calf  is  born.  The  Author  has  dehorned 
a  great  many  calves  by  this  method  which  is  briefly 
described  as  follow^s : 

When  the  calf  is  24  to  36  hours  old,  clip  the  hair 
from  the  invisible  horns  or  buttons  and  rub  them  with  a 
stick  of  caustic  potash.  The  potash  should  be  kept  in  an 
air-tight  bottle  until  ready  for  use.  As  soon  as  removed 
from  the  bottle,  the  upper  part  of  the  stick  should  be 
wrapped  with  a  piece  .  of  paper  to  prevent  its  burning 
the  hand.  After  a  few^  minutes'  exposure  to  the  air 
the  stick  becomes  moist.  As  soon  as  this  becomes  notice- 
able, rub  the  exposed  end  of  the  stick  over  each  button 
for  a  minute  or  two.  or  until  the  spot  begins  to  look 
reddish  or  sore.  If  the  calf  is  examined  twelve  hours 
later,  a  scab  will  be  found  where  the  potash  was  applied, 
showing  that  the  potash  has  gradually  eaten  its  w^ay 
into  the  button  and  thus  destroyed  it.  Care  should  be 
exercised  not  to  allow  the  potash  to  touch  any  part  but 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  81 

the  miniature  horn,  as  a  drop  on  the  flesh  would  cause 
unnecessary  pain. 

Cleanliness,  Regularity  and  Kind  Treatment.     The 

subject  of  cleanHness  is  fully  discussed  in  the  chapter 
on  Sanitary  IMilk  Production.  The  importance  of  regu- 
larity and  kind  treatment  are  fully  considered  in  the 
chapter  on  Milking. 

Warm  Housing.  On  account  of  their  general  spare- 
ness  of  flesh,  cows  have  little  protection  for  their  vital 
organs  and  are  therefore  peculiarly  susceptible  to  cold. 
For  this  reason,  warm  housing  during  the  winter  season 
is  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance.  It  matters  little 
how  good  a  dairy  machine  a  cow  may  be  or  how  w^ell 
she  may  be  fed,  the  returns  from  her  will  be  unsatis- 
factory if  she  is  compelled  to  shiver  in  her  stable  the 
larger  portion  of  the  winter  and  is  possibly  even  denied 
the  protection  of  a  stable  during  the  cold  drizzling  rains 
which  usually  precede  and  follow  the  severe  cold  of  the 
winter. 

Cows  in  Heat.  Cows,  while  in  heat,  should  be  kept 
separate  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  to  avoid  the  usual 
disturbances  incident  to  keeping  them  with  the  herd. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

REARING    THE    DAIRY    CALE. 

Prenatal  Development.  The  making  of  a  strong,  vig- 
orous, healthy  calf  begins  before  it  is  born.  Unless  the 
pregnant  mother  is  furnished  with  a  sufficient  amount 
of  good,  wholesome  feed,  rich  in  ash  and  protein,  the 
foetus  must  necessarily  suffer  retarded  development.  Not 
only  should  the  pregnant  cow  be  supplied  with  the  proper 
nutrients  for  the  development  of  bone  and  muscle  in 
the  foetus,  but  the  ration  should  be  such  as  will  keep  her 
in  the  best  physical  condition,  which  requires  some  suc- 
culent roughage  and  grain  rather  laxative  in  character. 
(See  page  42.) 

Time  the  Cow  Should  Suckle  the  Calf.  As  a  rule 
it  is  best  to  remove  the  calf  from  its  mother  before  it 
is  three  days  old.  The  early  removal  of  the  calf  has 
several  important  advantages  :  ( i )  it  prevents  to  a  great 
extent  the  excitement  attendant  on  separating  an  older 
calf  from  its  mother;  (2)  it  renders  it  easier  to  teach  the 
calf  to  drink  from  a  bucket;  (3)  it  permits  regularity 
of  milking  from  the  start;  and  (4)  it  makes  possible 
at  the  outset  to  milk  the  cow  "clean"  at  each  milking. 
Calves  never  feed  regularly,  nor  do  they  suck  heavy 
milkers  dry  at  any  time.  The  result  is  a  continual 
residue  of  milk  in  the  udder  which  acts  as  a  check  to 
the  secretion  of  this  substance  and  leads  to  an  early 
shrinkage  in  the  milk  yield. 

In  cases  of  caked  and  inflamed  udders  it  is  best,  how- 
ever, to  allov/   the  calf  to  suckle  the  cow  longer  than 

82 


THE   DAIRY    HERD 


83 


the  time  stated,  since  this  has  a  tendency  to  hasten  the 
disappearance  of  such  trouble. 

Feeding  the  Young  Calf.  The  first  milk  drawn  after 
calving  has  purging  properties  which  nature  has  provided 
for  the  purging  of  the  calf.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
that  the  calf  receive  this  milk  which  is  known  as  colos- 
trum. 

As  soon  as  removed  from  the  cow,  the  calf  should  be 
taught  to  drink  from  a  clean  bucket.  It  should  be  aided 
in  this  for  a  day  or  two  by  holding  the  tip  of  a  finger 
in  its  mouth.  The  milk  should  be  fed  as  near  body 
temperature  as  possible.  During  the  first  two  weeks 
the  calf  should  be  fed  not  less  than  three  times  a  day, 
receiving  eight  to  ten  pounds  of  milk  daily  the  first  week, 
and  ten  to  twelve  pounds  the  second  week.  After  the 
second  week  skim  milk  may  be  gradually  substituted 
for  whole  milk,  bringing  the  calf  to  a   full   skim  milk 


Fig.  17.— Calf  btanchioub. 


84  DAIRY   FARMING 

feed  at  the  end  of  four  weeks.  Beginning-  with  the 
substitution  of  skim  milk,  the  calf  should  be  fed  a  hand- 
ful of  ground  oats,  corn  meal,  or  linseed  meal  after  each 
milk  feed.  At  the  age  of  one  month,  when  feeding 
wholly  on  skim  milk,  one-half  pound  of  grain  may  be  fed 
daily  to  good  advantage,  and  access  should  be  given  to 
good  clean  hay.  The  feed  should  be  gradually  increased 
with  the  growing  needs  of  the  animal. 

Calf  Stanchions.  The  feeding  of  milk  to  calves 
becomes  a  comparatively  easy  task  when  the  calves  are 
confined  in  cheap,  rigid  stanchions  like  those  shown  in 
Fig.  17.  When  so  confined  one  person  can  feed  half  a 
(iozen  or  more  calves  at  the  same  time,  and  can  do  this 
with  less  labor  than  is  ordinarily  required  to  feed  one  calf. 
It  is  well,  however,  not  to  keep  the  calves  in  the  stanch- 
ions too  long  at  any  one  time,  because  of  the  rigid  con- 
finement. Calves  that  have  formed  the  "sucking"  habit 
may  be  confined  to  advantage  in  these  stanchions  during 
the  night,  especially  when  no  small  separate  pens  are 
available. 

Importance  of  Correct  Feeding.  A  young  calf  has  a 
delicate  stomach,  which  is  peculiarly  liable  to  be  upset  by 
the  injudicious  feeding  of  milk  and  skim-milk.  In  this 
respect  it  differs  little  from  the  very  young  child.  The 
effect  that  usually  follows  the  injudicious  feeding  of  milk 
is  a  case  of  scours.  This  trouble  can  be  obviated  in  a 
large  measure  by  strictly  observing  the  following  precau- 
tions :  First,  never  feed  calves  cold  milk,  but  have  it  as 
near  blood  heat  as  possible ;  second,  feed  milk  as  fresh  as 
possible  and  under  no  circumstances  feed  it  when  sour ; 
third,  feed  milk  only  from  vessels  that  have  been  thor- 
oughly cleaned  and  scalded ;  and  fourth,  carefully  avoid 
over-feeding.     Scours  or  diarrhea  is  one  of  the  common- 


THE   DAIRY  HERD  85 

est  ailments  of  calves  and  one  that  leaves  a  great  stunting 
effect  upon  their  development. 

While  great  importance  attaches  to  the  correct  feeding 
of  the  calf  in  its  early  life,  an  ample  allowance  of  feed 
of  the  right  kind  should  be  supplied  at  all  times.  Fatten- 
ing feeds  should  always  be  avoided. 

General  Care  of  the  Calf.  Calves  should  be  given 
all  the  outdoor  exercise,  fresh  air  and  sunshine  possible. 
During  cold  and  rainy  weather  they  should  be  confined 
in  clean,  dry  stables  with  plenty  of  bedding.  All  the 
comfort  possible  should  be  provided  for  calves  at  all 
times.  It  is  important  also  to  see  that  they  are  not  too 
much  annoyed  by  flies  during  the  summer.  When 
changed  from  dry  feed  to  pasture  the  change  should  be 
made  gradually,  or  trouble  from  scouring  is  likely  to  be 
encountered.  Plenty  of  good,  pure  water  should  be  pro- 
vided. The  skim-milk  feeding  may  be  continued  with 
profit  for  at  least  six  months.  When  no  pasture  is  avail- 
able, it  is  desirable  to  feed  a  liberal  amount  of  good, 
nitrogenous  hay  and  only  a  small  amount  of  grain.  This 
will  furnish  the  necessary  nutriments  for  growth,  at  the 
same  time  the  large  amount  of  roughage  tends  to  de- 
velop a  large  paunch  in  the  young  animal. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 

DAIRY    BARX. 

A  Place  Where  Human  Food  is  Prepared.  In  build- 
ing a  dairy  barn  it  should  be  remembered  that  one  is  pro- 
viding a  place  where  human  food  is  to  be  produced.  San- 
itary features  should,  therefore,  have  first  consideration. 
Among  the  most  important  of  these  are  abundance  of 
light,  ample  ventilation  and  general  regard  to  cleanli- 
ness. 

Contrary  to  general  belief,  a  sanitary  barn  is  not  nec- 
essarily an  expensive  barn.  Indeed  where  everything  is 
considered,  a  sanitary  barn  is  certain  to  prove  actually 
cheaper  in  the  long  run  than  one  in  which  sanitation  is 
made  an  entirely  secondary  matter. 

General  Plan  of  Barn.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  i8. 
For  a  full  description  of  the  barn,  of  which  this  floor  plan 
is  a  part,  see  page  87.  This  barn  was  designed  and  built 
by  the  author  for  the  Milwaukee  County  (Wis.)  School 
of  Agriculture.  The  plan  shows  a  milk,  two  feed  and 
storage  rooms,  calf  pens,  box  stalls  and  forty  cow  stalls, 
with  two  silos  joined  to  the  northeast  corner. 

There  is  an  eight-foot  drive  through  the  middle  of  the 
barn,  which  makes  it  possible  to  haul  the  manure  out  of 
the  barn  with  a  manure  spreader.  This  arrangement 
will  save  a  great  deal  of  labor  in  handling  the  manure 
and  has  several  other  advantages  over  the  common  plan 
of  having  the  feeding  alley  in  the  middle  of  the  barn. 

86 


THB   DAIRY   HERD 


87 


88  DAIRY   FARMING 

In  the  first  place  it  is  more  sanitary.  Where  the 
two  rows  of  cows  face  each  other  the  foul  breath 
from  each  must  necessarily  pass  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  thus  causing  the  cows  to  breathe  more  or 
less  impure  air.  When  the  cows  face  out  the  exhaled 
air  is  more  equally  distributed  through  the  barn  and  in 
so  far  reduces  the  amount  of  impurities  in  it  immediately 
in  front  of  the  cows.  Another  advantage  in  facing  cows 
out  is  the  fact  that  the  head  is  placed  nearest  the  wall 
where  the  temperature  is  lowest,  leaving  the  portion  of 
the  animal  that  must  be  most  protected  from  the  cold  in 
the  warmer  part  of  the  stable. 

The  silos  are  placed  where  most  convenient  for  feeding 
and  where  they  have  reasonable  protection  from  cold. 
Fresh  air  inlets  are  built  in  the  wall  of  the  barn  and 
the  air  outlets  are  placed  where  they  do  not  occupy  valu- 
able space  but  where  their  efficiency  is  not  materially 

interfered  with. 

Foundation  and  Floor.  The  barn  should  rest  upon  a 
substantial  foundation  constructed  of  stone  or  concrete. 
On  the  outside  of  the  foundation  and  a  little  below  it 
should  be  placed  tile  drains  to  prevent  any  water  from 
working  its  way  under  the  foundation. 

For  sanitary  reasons,  only  concrete  floors  should  be 
permitted  in  a  dairy  barn.  While  the  original  cost  may 
be  somewhat  high,  in  the  long  run  they  are  cheapest. 
Aside  from  being  easily  cleaned,  they  also  make  possible 
the  saving  of  all  the  liquid  manure,  an  important  item  to 
consider  in  the  management  of  a  dairy.  To  prevent  the 
dampness  commonly  associated  with  a  concrete  floor  it 
should  be  constructed  on  a  cobble  stone  and  cinder  foun- 
dation underlaid  with  drain  tile.  The  finish  of  the  floor 
should  be  rather  rough  to  prevent  cows  slipping  on  it. 


THE   DAIRY  HERD  89 

The  feeding  alleys,  that  is,  the  part  of  the  floor  be- 
tween the  mangers  and  the  walls,  should  be  about  three 
inches  higher  than  the  platforms  on  which  the  cows 
stand.  Moreover  they  should  slope  slightly  toward  the 
mangers.  The  platforms  and  drivew^ay  should  also  slope 
very  slightly  tow^ard  the  gutters. 

Light.  Sunlight,  because  of  its  disinfectant  action,  is 
of  prime  importance  in  making  a  stable  sanitary.  There 
should  be  not  less  than  four  square  feet  of  window  space 
per  cow. 

Walls.  Cheap  and  reasonably  air-tight  walls  are  se- 
cured by  nailing  matched  lumber  over  good  building 
paper  on  both  the  inside  and  outside  of  the  studding, 
except  the  lower  inside  six  feet.  From  the  floor  to  a 
height  of  six  feet,  nail  cheap  one-inch  lumber  over  build- 
ing paper  and  put  lath  and  concrete  on  this  as  a  finish. 
This  makes  the  lower  portion  of  the  wall  readily  clean- 
able  as  it  should  be.  The  portion  of  the  wall  above  the 
concrete,  as  well  as  the  entire  ceiling,  should  be  fre- 
quently whitewashed. 

Concrete  walls  have  proven  very  satisfactory  and  are 
rapidly  growing  in  popularity. 

Ceiling.  This  should  be  boarded  on  the  inside  with 
matched  lumber.  The  outside,  or  hay  floor  above,  may 
be  built  of  common,  cheap  lumber.  When,  however,  no 
hay  is  stored  above,  the  ceiling  should  have  a  dead  air 
space,  which  is  secured  by  using  matched  lumber  and 
paper,  both  inside  and  outside,  and  filling  the  space  be- 
tween with  dry  straw. 

Stalls  and  Ties.  These  should  be  arranged  ana  con- 
structed with  the  following  points  in  view :  ( i )  keep- 
ing the  cows  clean;  (2)  giving  them  as  much  comfort 
as  possible;  (3)  preventing  cows  from  stepping  on  each 


90 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Fig.  19.-Iron  Stall. 


Other's  teats;  (4)  giving  the  milker  comfort  during  milk- 
^^S'y  (5)  having  a  minimum  amount  of  surface  for  lodg- 
ment of  dust;  and  (6)  saving  of  time  in  tying. 


Fig.  20.— Iron  Stall. 


THB  DAIRY  HERD 


91 


To  keep  cows  clean  the  stall  must  be  of  such  length  as 
to  place  the  hind  feet  near  the  edge  of  the  gutter.  In 
order  to  have  comfort,  cows  should  not  be  confined  in 
rigid  stanchions,  nor  should  the  stalls  be  too  narrow. 
The  stepping  of  cows  on  their  neighbors'  teats  can  be 
prevented  only  by  using  some  form  of  partition  between 


Fig.  21.-Half  StaU. 

them.  To  provide  a  reasonable  amount  of  comfort  for 
the  milker  the  stalls  must  have  ample  width  and  the  end 
posts  of  the  partitions  should  be  set  about  one  foot  from 
the  edge  of  the  gutter.  Solid  wood  partitions  or  closely 
meshed  wire  and  iron  partitions,  afford  too  much  sur- 
face for  lodgment  of  dust.  Moreover,  solid  wood  par- 
titions obstruct  a  free  circulation  of  air.  The  simpler 
the  partition  the  more  desirable. 

Stalls  and  ties  like  those  shown  in  Figs.   19  and  20 
answer  all  the  requirements  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


92 


DAIRY  FARMING 


The  stall  shown  in  Fig.  21  is  used  by  many 
with  much  satisfaction,  but  is  somewhat  open  to  the 
objection  of  having  too  much  surface  for  lodgment  of 
(lust. 


O1 


Fig.  22.-A  Cheap  and  Satisfactory  Cow  Stall  atid  Manger. 

Rigid  stanchions  mean  rigid  confinement  and  sliould 
therefore  never  be  used.  Various  forms  of  swinging 
stanchions,  like  those  shown  in  the  figures,  are  used 
with  much  satisfaction.  Movable  halter  ties,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  2^^,  aro  used  in  many  leading  dairy  barns. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  93 

The  rope  or  chain  is  so  fastened  as  to  prevent  forward 
or  backward  movements  by  the  cows  but  permits  free 
movement  up  and  down. 


Fig.  23.— Movable  Halter  Tie. 

Stalls  like  those  shown  in  Figs.  19  and  20  have  the 
advantage  of  being  adjustable.  The  stanchion  is  movable, 
thus  permitting  the  stall  to  be  shortened  or  lengthened, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  cow.  Furthermore,  the  swing 
stanchions,  in  dispensing  with  the  front  end,  reduce  the 
amount  of  stall  surface,  which  is  particularly  noticeable 
in  the  stalls  shown  in  Figs.  19,  20  and  22. 

In  a  cold  climate,  it  is  desirable  to  cover  the  concrete 
floor  on  which  the  cows  stand  with  a  movable  wood  plat- 
form.    This    may   be    the    means    of   preventing   udder 


94  DAIRY  FARMIXG 

troubles  and  is  certain  to  increase  the  comfort  of  cows 
during  the  cold  season. 

Size  of  Stalls.  An  average-sized  cow  requires  a  stall 
3^  feet  wide  and  4>4  feet  long.  In  nearly  all  herds, 
however,  there  are  some  cows  larger  and  some  smaller 
than  the  average.  It  is  important,  therefore,  that  one 
row  of  stalls  be  made  to  taper  somewhat  from  one  end 
to  the  other.  For  example,  the  stalls  at  one  end  may 
have  dimensions  3^x3' lo",  which  would  nicely  accommo- 
date two-year-old  Jersey  heifers.  From  this  end  the 
dimensions  may  be  gradually  increased  until  they  reach 
4'x4'io"  at  the  opposite  end.  The  latter  dimensions 
would  accommodate  large  Holstein-Friesian  cows. 

Mangers.  These  should  be  constructed  wdth  four 
points    in    view :     ( i )    they    should   be   easily    cleanable ; 

(2)  they  should  be  provided  with  movable  partitions  so 
as  to  prevent  cows  from  stealing  feed  from  each  other ; 

(3)  they  should  be  large  enough  to  prevent  cows  from 
scattering  their  feed  over  the  barn  floor;  and  (4)  the  top 
should  be  below  the  cows'  noses  so  as  not  to  interfere 
too  much  with  the  circulation  of  the  air  in  front  of  the 
cows. 

All  of  the  above  features  are  embodied  in  the  manger 
illustrated  in  Fig.  22.  This  manger  the  Author  has  had 
placed  in  the  college  dairy  barn  and  has  found  it  highly 
satisfactory  in  all  respects.  The  aim  was  to  secure  a 
thoroughly  efficient  manger  with  as  small  an  outlay  of 
capital  as  possible.  Its  construction  is  as  follows :  The 
lower  three  inches  are  built  into  the  concrete  floor.  The 
superstructure,  which  is  20  inches  high,  18  inches  wide 
at  the  floor  and  36  inches  wide  at  the  top,  is  built  of 
^-inch  matched  lumber,  except  the  partitions  which  are 
built  of  iV2-inch  lumber.     Both  sides  of  the  lumber  are 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


95 


planed.  The  partitions  fit  snugly  into  the  3-inch  con- 
crete depression,  and  the  entire  manger  is  built  in  mova- 
ble sections,  each  21  feet  long.  The  sections  are  held  in 
place  by  means  of  a  small  hook  at  each  end,  which  is 
fastened  to  the  stanchion  supports. 


COV/  ST/\BL£ 
FRESH  /]IR  INLETS 


Fig.  24.  Fig-  25. 

King  system  of  ventilation.     Figure  25  shows  two  methods  of  carrying  out  air. 

The  three-inch  concrete  depression  makes  it  possible 
to  water  the  cows  in  their  stalls.  When  it  is  desired  to 
clean  the  manger,  the  hooks  are  unfastened  and  the  sec- 
tions turned  over,  thus  leaving  the  entire  manger  clear 
for  cleaning. 

Gutters.  These  should  be  about  15  inches  wide  and 
four  inches  deep.  A  greater  depth  is  liable  to  injure  the 
cows  when  the\'  happen  to  slip  into  the  gutter.  ]\Iore- 
over  any  extra  depth  means  just  so  much  more  lifting 


96  DAIRY    I- ARM  ISC 

in  removing  the  manure.  Gutters  should  be  perfectly 
tight  to  prevent  loss  of  liquid  manure. 

Ventilation.  The  best  method  of  stable  ventilation 
is  that  devised  by  F.  H.  King.  The  essential  features 
of  this  method  are  the  admission  of  the  fresh  air  near 
the  ceiling,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  impure  air  from 
near  the  floor,  as  illustrated  in  Figs.  24  and  25.  The 
object  of  admitting  the  cold,  fresh  air  near  the  ceiling 
is  to  warm  it  before  reaching  the  cows,  by  contact  with 
the  warm  air  at  the  ceiling.  By  having  the  main  air 
exits  near  the  floor,  less  heat  will  be  lost  than  would  be 
the  case  if  the  exits  were  placed  at  the  ceiling;  besides 
it  is  argued  that  a  considerable  amount  of  the  impurities 
of  the  air  are  found  at  the  floor  to  which  the  cows'  breath 
is  constantly  directed.  Recent  experiments  seem  to  in- 
dicate, however,  that  at  least  so  far  as  carbonic  acid  gas 
is  concerned,  most  of  this  gas  is  found  at  the  ceiling. 

Whether  most  of  the  impurities  are  found  at  the  ceil- 
ing or  at  the  floor,  it  seems  advisable  to  reinforce  the 
exits  at  the  floor,  by  placing  a  ventilator  opening  pro- 
vided with  a  register  at  the  middle  of  the  ceiling  so 
that  some  air  may  be  withdrawn  from  this  point.  Dur- 
ing very  cold  weather  it  may  be  desirable  to  reduce  this 
exit  to  a  minimum  by  closing  the  register,  but  during 
warm  weather,  or  when  it  is  desired  to  lower  the  barn 
temperature,  it  should  be  opened  entirely.  By  having 
one  large  opening  at  the  middle  of  the  ceiling,  there  is 
less  likelihood  of  removing  any  fresh,  incoming  air  than 
would  be  the  case  if  numerous  smaller  exits  were  placed 
near  the  wall  and  opening  into  the  same  shaft  that  takes 
up  the  floor  air,  an  arrangement  not  infrequently  recom- 
mended and  used. 

The  number  and  location  of  inlets  and  outlets  (except 


THE   DAIRY    HERD  97 

the  outlet  at  the  ceiling)  are  shown  in  Fig.  i8.  Numer- 
ous small  inlets  have  the  advantage  of  causing  a  better 
distribution  of  the  cold,  incoming  air  than  could  be  se- 
cured by  fewer,  but  larger  openings. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  outlets  should  be  few  and  com- 
paratively large,  which  will  aid  in  creating  draft. 

The  fresh  air  intakes  consist  of  air-tight  shafts  with 
cross-sectional  areas  of  about  50  square  inches.  The 
shafts  are  built  right  in  the  wall,  and  open  near  the 
floor  on  the  outside  and  near  the  ceiling  on  the  inside. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  the  outside  openings 
at  least  several  feet  below  the  inside  openings,  otherwise 
the  warm  inside  air  would  rush  out  instead  of  the  cold, 
outside  air  going  in. 

The  main  air  outlets  may  be  placed  where  they  are 
least  troublesome.  In  the  barn  plans  herewith  presented, 
they  are  placed  in  the  box  stalls  and  communicate  with 
the  main  barn  floor  by  means  of  registers  in  the  wall. 
The  size  of  these  registers  is  that  of  the  cross-sectional 
area  of  the  shafts. 

To  secure  effective  work  with  the  King  system  of 
ventilation  three  things  are  essential:  (i)  to  have  the 
ventilating  shafts  air-tight;  (2)  to  have  the  outlet  shafts 
extend  to  the  highest  point  of  the  barn;  and  (3)  to  have 
the  barn  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible. 

Hay  Loft.  With  a  perfectly  tight  ceiling  and  with 
the  hay  chute  in  the  feed  room,  there  is  no  objection 
whatever  to  having  a  loft  above  the  stable  for  the  stor- 
age of  roughage.  Indeed  such  a  loft  has  two  distinct 
advantages:  it  helps  to  keep  the  stable  warm  and  re- 
duces the  labor  in  feeding. 

Doors.  Two  doors  should  be  provided  at  either  end 
of  the  barn,   as  shown   in  Fig.    18.     The  outside  doors 


98 


DAIRY  FARMING 


may  be  of  the  roller  type,  but  on  the  inside  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  swing  doors.  The  latter  fit  tighter  and  thus 
aid  in  making  the  barn  warmer  during  the  winter. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


BOX 
STALL 


FE.ELDIJN/'G  ALLELY 


AJ-LELY 


IKLANcSER. 


CO\J     5TALL.S    3 


■±1 


CALVES 


CEi/^TRAL   DR1VEWAV8' 


MA)HG|ER    \z> 


T.VLL 


•A  .  ^.•/■J\ 


FEEDING  ALLEV 


CALVES 


JAMi 


HORSES 


AL1_.EY   3 


Combination  Barn.     (From  Hoard's  Dairyman.) 


A  "Switch"  Board.  This  is  an  invention  of  Math. 
Michels  on  whose  farm  it  has  proven  an  absolute  protec- 
tion to  the  milker  against  the  cow's  switch  (tail)  during 
fly  season.  It  consists  of  an  inch  board,  8  inches  wide 
and  4  feet  long  suspended  from  a  wire.  The  latter  runs 
close  behind  the  cows  and  is  fastened  about  6>^  feet 
above  the  floor.  The  board  slides  on  the  wire  and  is 
pushed  right  opposite  the  milker. 

Any  farmer  can  fix  up  a  board  of  this  kind  at  a  trifling 
expense  and  positively  protect  himself  from  any  annoy- 
ance from  the  cow's  switch  during  milking. 

A  Cheap  Home  Made  Stall.  Stanchion  supports  are 
made  by  running  two  2x6-inch  planks  along  both  the  bot- 
tom and  top  of  the  stanchion  and  supporting  the  whole 
structure  by  placing  2x6-inch  planks  upright,  in  front  of 
each  partition.     The  lower  end  of  these  upright  planks  is 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


99 


embedded  in  the  concrete  floor  while   the   upper    end   is 
fastened  to  the  ceiling. 


Fig.  26.— A  Cheap  Home-made  Stall. 


Partitions  are  made  of  ly^-'mch.  gas  pipes  cut  into 
proper  lengths  and  then  bent.  One  end  of  the  pipe  is 
double  threaded  and  fastened  to  the  upright  planks  by 
means  of  locknuts.  The  other  end  is  embedded  in  the 
concrete  floor.     See  Fig.  26. 


100  DAIRY  FARMING 

-12" 


A  Good  Milk  Stool. 


Showing  Board  Platform  Fastened  to  2X4's  Embedded  in  the  Concrete. 


Cross-Section  of  Barn  Floor. 


THE  DAIRY   HERD 
DESCRIPTION  OF  MODEL  DAIRY  BARN. 


100a 


The  plans  here  presented  are  for  a  barn  to  be  used 
exclusively  for  dairy  purposes.  The  first  story  or  cow 
stable  is  built  of  concrete  one  foot  thick,  heavily  rein- 


T^m^mm^^m^mmm 


Cross-section. 


forced  and  provided  with  48  windows.  These  windows 
have  each  9  panes  9x12  inches  which  afford  ample  light 
required  for  all  purposes.  The  windows  are  hinged  at 
the  bottom,  thus  permitting  them  to  swing  in  at  the  top. 


100b 


DAIRY   FARMING 


'^^ 


a  ^ 

•,"7  1^ 


O  u 

.":;  o 

C/}  o 

;-  O 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


lOOc 


The  second  story  has  a  hay  storage  capacity  of  240 
tons,  and  is  of  the  plank  frame,  gambrel-roof  style,  which 
is  almost  entirely  used  nowadays  in  barn  construction. 

The  inside  dimensions  of  this  barn  are  36x122  feet. 
The  cows  face  out  and  there  is  an  eight-foot  space 
through  the  center  of  the  barn    which  will  permit  re- 


End  Elevation. 


moving   the   manure    from   the   barn   with   the   manure 
spreader. 

At  the  south  end  of  the  barn  there  are  three  rooms, 
two  small  ones  and  one  large  one.  One  small  room  is 
used  for  temporary  storage  of  milk  and  for  keeping  milk 
records  and  composite  sample  bottles.  It  also  contains 
racks  for  pails  and  cans.  This  room  is  8x12  feet  and 
occupies  the  southeast  corner  of  the  barn.    Adjoining  this 


lOOd  DAIRY   FARMING 

room  is  one  10x12  feet,  in  which  there  is  a  hay  chute  and 
a  2x2  feet  ventilator  exit  which  communicates  with  the 
main  barn  by  means  of  a  register.  This  room  is  also 
used  for  storage  of  barn  tools,  salt,  etc. 

Opposite  these  two  rooms  is  one  12x18  feet  provided 
with  two  feed  spouts  which  convey  the  feed  from  two 
large  storage  bins  overhead.  This  room  also  contains  a 
hay  chute  and  a  2x2  feet  ventilator  exit.  This  room  may 
be  used  as  a  storage  for  various  barn  supplies. 

There  are  forty  cow  stalls  with  platforms  ranging  in 
length  from  4  feet  4  inches  to  4  feet  10  inches.  This  will 
accommodate  both  large  and  small  cows.  The  platform  on 
one  side  of  the  barn  has  a  length  of  4  feet  4  inches  at 
one  end  and  4  feet  10  inches  on  the  other,  while  the  plat- 
form on  the  opposite  side  has  a  uniform  length  of  4  feet 
6  inches.  For  Holstein-Friesian  cows  the  platforms 
should  be  three  to  four  inches  longer.  The  stalls  are  all 
three  and  one-half  feet  wide.  At  the  north  end  of  the 
barn  there  are  two  larg*^  box  stalls  and  also  two  calf 
pens  provided  with  stanchions.  These  stalls  and  pens 
are  constructed  of  galvanized  iron  pipe  held  together  at 
the  top  by  means  of  4X4's. 

There  is  drainage  from  the  mangers,  the  feeding  alleys 
and  the  gutters.  The  main  drains  consist  of  4-inch  sewer 
tile  and  are  connected  with  bell  traps  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  feeding. alleys,  mangers  and  gutters.  These  bell 
traps  are  provided  with  both  perforated  and  solid  covers. 
The  perforated  ones  are  used  only  when  washing  the 
barn  and  when  emptying  surplus  water  from  the  mangers 
after  watering  the  cows.  The  illustration  shows  the  water 
connected  to  one  end  of  the  concrete  manger,  and  the 
cows  are  watered  in  the  manger  during  the  winter. 

The  manger  is  three  feet  wide  across  the  top,  two  feet 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


lOOe 


deep  and  provided  with  movable  iron  partitions,  which 
can  readily  be  thrown  out  when  it  is  desired  to  clean  the 
manger.  There  is  a  ledge  at  the  top  of  the  manger  which 
projects  in  about  three  inches,  and  this  is  a  very  valuable 
adjunct  to  the  manger  because  it  will  prevent  cows 
scooping  their  feed  out. 

A  feature  which 
should  be  especially 
noted  in  this  barn  is 
the  perfectly  smooth 
walls  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  The 
window  frames  fit 
flush  with  the  con- 
crete walls,  thus 
preventing  lodgment 
of  dust.  It  will  also 
be  noticed  that  the 
barn  is  provided 
with  electric  lights 
and  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  feed  and  lit- 

ter  carriers.  ^^^^  Elevation. 

The  King  system  of  ventilation  is  in  use  in  this  barn. 
There  are  i6  inlets  consisting  of  5-inch  sewer  tile,  8  on 
each  side  of  the  barn.  The  air  is  carried  out  by  three 
ventilating  shafts,  each  two  feet  square.  One  of  these 
ventilating  shafts  is  a  continuation  of  the  silage  chute, 
the  construction  of  which  will  readily  be  understood  from 
the  following: 

The  two  concrete  silos  shown  in  the  illustration  are 
joined  to  the  northeast  corner  of  the  barn.  The  reason 
for  placing  these  silos  at  this  point  is  to  prevent  their 


— 









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DAIRY   FARMING 


obscuring  any  light,  and  to  make  possible  a  drive  through 
the  center  of  the  barn.  By  joining  the  silos  we  save  the 
expense  of  a  silage  chute,  because  the  junction  of  the 
silos  with  the  barn  forms  a  chute  which,  as  has  been 
stated,  is  also  used  as  a  ventilating  exit.  The  warm  air 
passing  through  this  chute  will  prevent  silage  freezing 


view  Showing  Construction  of  Box  Stalls  and  Calf  Pens. 


in  the  silo  in  the  winter.  The  silage  chute  is  also  used 
as  a  hay  chute.  While  the  northeast  corner  appears  to 
be  rather  an  exposed  situation  for  silos,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  one  of  the  silos  is  entirely  on  the  east 
side  and  is  protected  on  the  north  and  northwest  by  the 
other  silo.  We  use  the  protected  silo  for  winter  feeding 
and  the  other  for  summer  feeding. 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  IQOg 

It  should  be  added  that  there  is  a  perfectly  air-tight 
ceiling  in  this  barn,  which  is  a  necessity  where  the  clean- 
est milk  is  to  be  produced.  From  a  sanitary  aspect  the 
barn  compares  favorably  with  any  in  the  country,  and 
from  the  standpoint  of  cheapness,  convenience  and  per- 
manency the  barn  afifords  many  features  which  are 
worthy  of  emulation  by  farmers. 

A  brief  statement  is  herewith  appended  showing  the 
cost  of  the  barn  and  the  two  silos.  This  statement  in- 
cludes everything  but  the  hauling  of  the  gravel. 


COST   01-'  DAIRY   BARN    AND   SILOS. 

Carpenter  work,  including  work  on 

silos    $730.00 

Concrete  work,  cow  stable  and  silos  703.00 

Labor  digging  foundation 25.00 

Lumber,   excepting  doors  and  win- 
dows    1,702.00 

Cement,  437  bbls.  at  $1.25 546.00 

Windows  (50)  and  doors 136.00 

Stalls  for  40  cows,  carriers  including 
feed,    manure,    and    hay    carriers, 

and  all  tracks   430.00 

Two  box  stalls  and  two  calf  pens, 

made  of  gas  pipe 90.00 

Plumbing  and  gasoline 215.00 

Painting  of  barn,  two  coats 140.00 

Cost  of  plastering  small  rooms 52.00 

Electric  wiring 42.00 

Eaves  Troughs 24.00 

Miscellaneous 50.00 

$4,885.00 


lOOh  DAIRY   FARMING 

ELECTRIC    LIGHT    FOR    FARM    BUILDINGS. 

From  the  standpoint  of  comfort,  safety,  convenience 
and  sanitation,  electricity  furnishes  the  best  Hght  that  can 
be  obtained  for  farm  uses.  The  cost,  too,  is  very  reason- 
able considering  the  advantages  gained.  Hundreds  of 
dairy  farms  are  now  producing  their  own  electric  light 


Note  Smooth  Walls  and  Manger. 

and  the  rapidly  increasing  popularity  of  this  system  of 
illumination  fully  attests  its  value  for  farm  purposes. 

Undoubtedly  one  thing  that  has  stimulated  the  use  of 
electric  light  on  dairy  farms  is  the  fact  that  most  of 
these  farms  are  equipped  with  gasoline  engines  and  the 
further  fact  that  the  electricity  may  be  produced  and 
stored  at  the  same  time  that  the  gasoline  engine  is  separat- 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


lOOi 


ing  milk,  pumping  water  and  doing  other  farm  work. 
Then,  too,  the  large  amount  of  stable  work  on  dairy 
farms  makes  electric  light  especially  desirable  on  such 
farms.  No  matter  how  conveniently  a  stable  may  be 
arranged  otherwise,  it  is  an  uncomfortable  place  to  work 
in  when  poorly  lighted.     Again  the  element  of   safety 


View  Showing  Interior  Construction. 

from  fire  which  electricity  assures,  cannot  well  be  ignored. 
Furthermore,  of  all  lights,  electricity  is  the  only  one 
that  does  not  consume  oxygen.  This  is  a  matter  of  no 
small  importance,  especially  in  dwellings  where  large 
quantities  of  oxygen  are  taken  out  of  the  air  during  long 
winter  evenings  when  kerosene,  gasoline  or  acetylene 
are  burned.     As  to  the  matter  of  convenience  little  need 


lOOj 


DAIRY   FARMING 


be  said  here  as  most  people  are  familiar  with  the  great 
advantages  offered  by  electricity  in  this  respect. 

Apparatus  Required.  An  electric  lighting  equipment 
consists  of  a  generator  or  dynamo,  some  motive  power 
such  as  a  gasoline  engine,  a  storage  battery  and  a  switch- 
board. The  generator  or  dynamo  produces  the  electric 
current  and  requires  as  a  rule  from  two  to  three  horse 
power  to  operate  it.  The  storage  battery  stores  the  elec- 
tricity for  future  use,  thus  making  it  possible  to  obtain 
electric  light  when  the  dynamo  is  not  running.  The 
switchboard  controls  the  electric  current  and  shows  the 
voltage  of  the  storage  battery  and  the  rate  at  which 
electricity  is  being  supplied  to,  and  taken  away  from,  the 
battery. 

When  purchasing  a  gasoline  engine  for  farm  use,  it  is 
wise  to  consider  the  possible  future  use  of  electric  light 
so  that  enough  power  may  be  had  to  generate  electricity 
when  a  plant  is  finally  installed. 

It  is  desirable  to  place  the  dynamo,  battery  and  switch- 
board reasonably  close  together  and  a  clean,  dry  place 
must  be  selected  for  them.  The  storage  battery  must  be 
placed  where  there  is  no  danger  from  frost.  A  storage 
battery  will  prove  more  efficient  at  65  to  70°  F.  than  at 
lower  temperatures. 

Wiring  the  Buildings.  A  barn  may  be  wired  at  any 
time  for  electric  light,  but  a  house  should  be  wired  at 
the  time  it  is  built  so  that  the  wires  may  be  concealed. 
Many  also  prefer  to  conceal  the  wires  in  the  barn.  Those 
v.'ho  are  going  to  build  dwellings  in  the  near  future 
should  not  fail  to  consider  the  possibility  of  using  electric 
light  so  that  the  wires  may  be  properly  installed.  It  is 
important,  too,  to  get  the  right  sized  wire.  The  size  of 
the  wire  is  determined  by  the  voltage  (electric  pressure) 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  IQOk 

and  the  distance  the  electric  current  is  to  be  carried. 
Farm  lighting  plants  are  usually  of  the  low  voltage  type, 
30  volts  being  common,  though  higher  voltage  may  often 
be  carried  to  advantage,  especially  v^hen  the  current  is 
to  be  carried  a  long  distance.  The  lower  the  voltage  and 
the  longer  the  distance  the  current  is  to  be  carried,  the 
heavier  the  wires  required. 

Selecting  an  Outfit.  There  are  many  different  kinds 
of  electrical  equipments  to  be  had  for  farm  lighting  and 
careful  study  of  them  should  be  made  before  purchasing 
an  outfit.  Usually  all  the  electricity  for  lighting  purposes 
is  stored  in  the  battery  at  the  time  the  gasoline  engine  is 
doing  the  regular  farm  work,  such  as  separating  milk, 
pumping  water,  etc.,  and  the  size  of  the  dynamo  should 
be  such  that  the  battery  may  be  sufficiently  charged  while 
this  work  is  being  done.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be 
laid  upon  the  importance  of  getting  an  outfit  of  ample 
capacity.  A  fifty-light  plant  is  none  too  large  for  an 
average  dairy  farm,  and  the  dynamo  and  battery  should 
be  large  enough  to  keep  up  the  supply  of  electricity  with 
two  or  three  hours  daily  charging  of  the  batteries. 

In  purchasing  an  outfit,  get  a  guarantee  on  the  whole 
plant,  and  especially  on  the  lasting  quality  of  the  battery 
and  on  the  time  required  daily  to  keep  the  batteries 
charged. 

Operation  of  Plant.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  dynamo  produces  the  electric  current,  which,  for  con- 
venience, is  stored  in  the  storage  battery.  Without  a 
storage  battery  it  would  be  necessary  to  run  the  dynamo 
whenever  light  is  required  and  this  would  obviously  be 
undesirable.  The  dynamo  should  be  run  and  electricity 
stored  at  the  time  the  gasoline  engine  is  doing  other 
farm  work.    This  reduces  the  expense  of  power  and  time 


1001  DAIRY   FARMING 

to  minimum.     Indeed  under  these  conditions  the  plant 
will  require  very  little  attention. 

Complete  specifications  and  directions  for  operating  an 
electric  plant  are  furnished  by  the  manufacturer  with 
each  plant. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

HANDLING    FAR^I    MANURE). 

Value  of  Manure  Per  Cow.  The  value  of  the 
manure  from  a  cow  depends  priniarily  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  feed  supphed  her.  Feeds  rich  in  fertihzing 
constituents  will  produce  manure  correspondingly  rich 
in  them.  On  an  average  75%  of  the  fertilizing  con- 
stituents in  feeds  are  recovered  in  the  manure.  The 
Cornell  station  finds  that  the  value  of  the  manure  from 
cows  averaging  1000  pounds  live  weight,  is  $29.27  per 
cow  per  year.  This  may  be  regarded  as  a  very  fair 
average. 

Relative  Value  of  Liquid  and  Solid  Manure.  The 
urine,  as  a  rule,  is  much  richer  in  fertilizing  constituents 
than  the  dung.  It  contains  more  than  half  the  nitrogen 
and  nearly  all  of  the  potash  voided  by  the  animal.  Prac- 
tically all  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  however,  is  found  in 
the  solid  excreta.  The  fact  that  the  larger  portion  of 
the  fertilizing  constituents  is  found  in  the  urine,  empha- 
sizes the  importance  of  carefully  saving  all  this  portion 
of  the  voidings. 

How  to  Save  the  Urine.  To  save  all  of  the  liquid 
manure,  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  have  water- 
tight gutters  and  floors.  Nothing  is  better  in  this  respect 
than  concrete. 

The  next  requirement  is  a  sufificient  amount  of  clean, 
porous  bedding  to  absorb  all  of  the  liquid.  Straw, 
especially  if  cut  up  somewhat,  makes  excellent  bedding 

101 


102  DAIRY   FARMING 

material.  It  is  clean  and  holds  a  great  deal  of  moisture. 
Planer  shavings  also  answer  the  purpose  satisfactorily. 

In  addition  to  this  it  is  desirable  to  use  some  powdered 
absorbents  like  ground  phosphate  rock  and  gypsum. 
These  materials  not  only  absorb  moisture  but  also  absorb 
ammonia  as  it  is  liberated  from  the  manure,  thus  saving 
valuable  volatile  manurial  constituents  and  at  the  same 
time  purifying  the  air  of  the  barn. 

Sources  of  Loss  of  Manurial  Constituents.  Losses 
of  manurial  constituents  may  be  considered  under  two 
heads:  (i)  those  occasioned  by  leaching,  and  (2)  those 
caused  by  bacterial  action  or  fermentation  processes. 
Where  no  precaution  against  leaching  and  fermentation 
are  taken,  more  than  half  the  value  of  the  manure  is 
easily  lost. 

Loss  Through  Leaching.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  manure  as  ordinarily  placed  in  a  pile  will  lose  about 
50%  of  its  value  when  left  exposed  to  the  weather  for  a 
period  of  six  months.  Every  rain  washes  a  certain  per- 
centage of  the  soluble  manurial  constituents  away  from 
the  pile.  That  heavy  losses  occur  in  this  way  is  evident 
from  the  dark  liquor  which  runs  away  from  a  manure 
heap  that  has  been  exposed  to  the  rain.  Frequently  for 
convenience  of  handling,  the  manure  is  piled  close  to  the 
barn  and  directly  under  the  eaves,  where  the  amount 
of  water  that  pours  over  it  becomes  very  considerable 

Losses  from  leaching  can  be  entirely  avoided  by  placing 
the  manure  in  a  shallow  concrete  pit  provided  with  a  roof. 
Even  the  concrete  floor  may  be  done  away  with  if  the 
ground  is  clayey,  closely  packed  and  so  sloped  that  no 
water  from  without  can  drain  into  the  pit.  No  farmer 
can  aflford  to  be  without  a  covered  storage  for  manure. 


THB   DAIRY   HERD  103 

Losses  Through  Fermentation.  Manure  is  a  medium 
exceedingly  rich  in  bacterial*  life.  Many  species  of  bac- 
teria are  at  work  decomposing  the  organic  matter,  break- 
ing up  higher  compounds  into  lower  compounds  and 
accomplishing  what  is  ordinarily  designated  the  rotting 
of  the  manure.  In  the  fermentation  or  rotting  process 
the  nitrogen  compounds  are  broken  up  into  ammonia, 
which  readily  escapes  from  the  manure  pile.  Evidence 
of  such  escape  is  found  in  the  ammoniacal  odors  that 
emanate  from  loosely  packed  manure,  such,  for  example, 
as  that  procured  from  horses. 

This  ammoniacal  fermentation  can  be  largely  reduced 
by  packing  the  manure  tight  so  as  to  exclude  the  air 
as  much  as  possible.  Most  of  the  bacteria  concerned  in 
the  liberation  of  ammonia  must  have  air  for  their  devel- 
opment, and  hence  their  action  is  reduced  in  proportion 
as  the  air  is  excluded  from  the  manure  heap. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  species  of  bacteria  con- 
cerned in  the  liberation  of  nitrogen,  namely,  the  denit- 
rifying bacteria,  require  no  air  for  their  growth  and 
development.  Yet  the  loss  from  this  class  of  bacteria 
is  relatively  so  small  that,  while  the  exclusion  of  air 
favors  their  development,  every  effort  should  be  made  to 
keep  the  manure  heap  as  air-tight  as  possible,  so  as  to 
minimize  the  loss  from  the  air-loving  bacteria. 

Ammonia  or  Nitrogen  "Fixers."  While  the  loss  of 
ammonia  from  the  manure  heap  can  be  materially  reduced 
by  tight  packing,  more  or  less  of  it  is  bound  to  be  formed 
under  the  best  packing  possible.  To  prevent  the  escape 
of  this  ammonia  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  the  manure 
something  which  will  ''fix"  or  hold  the  ammonia.  ]\Iate- 
rials  used  for  this  purpose  are  known  as  nitrogen  or  am- 

*  For  definition  of  bacteria,  see  page  146. 


104  DAIRY   FARMING 

monia  fixers.  Ground  phosphate  rock  and  gypsum  are 
excellent  materials  to  use  for  this  purpose.  These  ma- 
terials should  be  added  to  the  gutter  in  th.e  barn,  since 
they  not  only  act  as  ammonia  fixers,  but  are  also  excellent 
absorbents.  On  the  whole  the  ground  phosphate  rock 
is  preferable  to  the  gypsum.  The  latter  is  sulphate  of 
lime,  and  is  commonly  known  as  land  plaster.  Dry  earth 
containing  a  great  deal  of  humus  is  also  valuable  as 
an  absorbent  and  ammonia  fixer. 

Hauling  Manure  Directly  Upon  the  Land.  If  the 
manure  can  be  hauled  upon  ground  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  its  being  washed  away,  the  most  economical 
plan  is  to  spread  it  upon  the  land  as  quickly  as  it  is 
formed.  Under  such  conditions  there  will  be  practically 
no  loss  from  leaching  and  fermentation,  and,  moreover, 
what  is  of  no  little  importance,  the  manure  is  handled 
with  the  least  amount  of  labor.  As  a  rule  it  is  safest 
to  spread  the  manure  upon  some  growing  crop. 

Manure  Carriers.  A  convenient  and  labor-saving 
piece  of  apparatus  upon  a  dairy  farm  is  an  elevated 
manure  carrier  like  that  shown  on  page  90.  The  con- 
venience afforded  by  a  carrier  is  especially  great  during 
the  winter,  when  much  manure  must  be  removed  from 
the  barn. 

Manure  Spreaders.  No  dairy  farmer  can  afiford  to 
be  without  a  manure  spreader.  It  quickly  pays  for  itself 
in  the  saving  of  labor  and  has  the  additional  advantage  of 
insuring  an  even  distribution  of  manure  on  the  field. 


THE    DAIRY    HERD 


105 


CHAPTER  XV. 

POWER  ON   THE  FARM. 

The  use  of  some  form  of  power  upon  farms  has  fre- 
quently been  recommended  in  the  past,  but  never  before 
has  its  use  been  more  urgent  than  at  the  present  time. 
The  increasing  scarcity  of  labor,  the  rapid  increase  of 
hand  separators  and  silos,  and  the  general  convenience 
it  affords,  have  made  power  an  actual  necessity  upon 
progressive  dairy  farms. 

The  kind  of  power  needed  upon  a  dairy  farm  depends 
upon  certain  conditions.  If  a  tread  power  is  used  for 
exercising  the  bull,  this  will  serve  satisfactorily  for  sep- 
arating milk,  pumping  water,  and  doing  other  light  work. 
Where  a  milk  house  is  used  and  butter  is  made  upon  the 
farm  a  small  steam  engine  may  be  made  to  do  any  light 
work  economically.  But  the  use  of  either  the  tread  power 
or  the  small  steam  engine  fails  to  provide  the  necessary 
power  for  cutting  corn  for  the  silo,  savvying  wood,  grind- 
ing feed,  or  doing  other  heavy  work. 

Every  modern  dairy  farm  must  have  a  silo,  and  it  is 
at  silo  filling  time  that  we  usually  experience  the  great- 
est need  for  some  form  of  power.  With  none  of  our  own 
we  are  obliged  to  hire  or  borrow,  a  practice  which  often 
compels  us  to  wait  till  the  corn  is  past  its  prime.  More- 
over it  is  frequently  impossible  to  hire  power,  no  matter 
how  much  we  may  wish  to  do  so.  Where  good  silage  is 
desired  it  should  be  made  at  the  proper  time,  and  this 
can  be  done  with  certainty  only  when  we  own  the  power. 

Where  power  for  the  heavier  work  can  not  be  con- 

106 


THE   DAIRY   HERD 


107 


veniently  hired  or  borrowed,  it  is  believed  that  the  best 
solution  for  the  farm  power  problem  is  the  gasoline  en- 
gine. Such  an  engine  can  be  used  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes  and  practically  every  day  of  the  year. 

Besides  running  the  ensilage  cutter,  cream  separator 
and  possibly  a  milking  machine,  the  engine  may  be  used 
to  pump  water,  to  run  the  washing  machine,  corn  sheller, 
grindstone,  saw,  churn  and  grist  mill.     When  placed  as 


GRI6r  MILL 


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ENGINE 


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Fig^.  28.— Possible  Uses  of  Gasoline  Engine. 


shown  in  Fig.  28  several  of  these  machines  may  be  run 
at  the  same  time. 

Many  dairy  farmers  have  felt  justified  in  going  to  the 
expense  of  purchasing  gasoline  power  solely  for  running 
the  cream  separator.  For  this  purpose  a  two-horse  power 
engine  suffices;  but  it  would  be  greater  economy  to  iur 
crease  the  original  outlay  somewhat  and  secure  an  eight- 
horse  power  engine,  one  that  could  be  used  for  the  heavier 


108  DAIRY  FARMING 

work  of  cutting  ensilage  and  corn  stover,  as  well  as  run- 
ning a  saw  and  grist  mill. 

This  is  an  age  of  machinery,  and  we  believe  the  time 
is  not  far  distant  when  the  farmer  will  make  use  of 
power  whenever  this  can  be  made  to  take  the  place  of 
hired  labor.  Power  will  not  only  afford  greater  con- 
venience but  will  curtail  the  running  expenses  of  the 
farm. 

If,  for  example,  we  assume  that  one  hour  is  required 
daily  in  running  the  separator,  and  another  in  pump- 
ing water  for  stock,  the  total  time  consumed  in 
this  work  in  one  year  would  be  730  hours,  or  73  days  of 
10  hours  each.  At  $1  a  day,  the  cost  of  separating  and 
pumping  would  amount  to  $73  a  year.  With  a  gasoline 
engine  running  the  pump  and  separator  at  the  same 
time,  this  work  could  be  done  in  365  hours.  Allowing 
6c  per  hour  for  gasoline  and  oil,  which  is  a  high  esti- 
mate, the  cost  of  doing  the  above  work  with  an  engine 
would  be  $21.90,  or  less  than  one-third  of  what  it  can 
be  done  for  with  hired  labor.  This  saving  is  equivalent 
to  about  25  per  cent  on  the  investment  of  the  engine,  if 
used  for  no  other  purpose  than  separating  milk  and 
pumping  water. 

At  silo  filling  time  the  engine  should  be  mounted  on 
a  suitable  base  near  the  silo,  where  it  is  expected  to  re- 
main only  during  the  filling  of  the  silo.  The  remainder 
of  the  year  it  may  be  placed  as  indicated  in  the  above 
illustration. 

There  are  plenty  of  simple  and  smooth-running  gaso- 
line engines  upon  the  market,  and  in  purchasing  care 
should  be  taken  to  get  one  in  which  these  two  qualities 
are  mxOst  conspicuous. 

A  possible  objection  to  the  use  of  gasoline  engines  for 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  109 

dairy  purposes  is  the  trouble  from  gas  odor  where  there 
is  any  tendency  to  laxness  in  the  care  of  machinery. 
Where  precautions  are  taken  against  leakage  of  gas  or 
gasoline,  and  where  the  exhaust  is  properly  conducted 
away,  there  should  be  no  trouble  from  gas  odors. 

The  fuel  cost  of  running  a  gasoline  engine  may  be 
stated  as  follows :  When  gasoline  is  worth  loc  per 
gallon,  gasoline  power  will  cost  ic  per  brake  horse 
power  per  hour. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

DISEASES   AND    AILMENTS   OE   DAIRY    CATTLE. 

Prevention.  The  old  adage,  "An  ounce  of  preven- 
tion is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  is  as  true  to-day  as 
ever.  The  common  ailments  with  which  cattle  are 
afflicted  can  be  largely  prevented  by  correct  feeding, 
comfortable  and  sanitary  housing,  gentle  treatment,  and 
by  using  every  precaution  possible  against  infection  from 
contagious  diseases. 

Digestive  disorders  are  the  result  of  injudicious  feed- 
ing, and  these  may  be  the  forerunner  of  a  retinue  of 
various  other  disorders.  Exposure  to  severe  cold  and 
cold  rains,  and  confinement  in  foul  and  unventilated 
stables  are  predisposing  causes  to  various  diseases.  Many 
ailments  are  caused,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  by  al- 
lowing cows  to  lie  on  cold  concrete  floors,  by  chasing 
with  dogs  and  by  compelling  them  to  walk  and  stand  on 
slippery,  highly  inclined  floors. 

Great  aid  has  been  rendered  in  the  prevention  of  dis- 
eases through  the  rapid  development  of  medical  science 
in  pointing  out  the  nature  and  causes  of  the  various  dis- 
eases with  which  cattle  are  afflicted.  Every  dairyman 
should  have  an  intelligent  understanding  of  the  role 
which  bacteria  (for  definition  of  bacteria  see  p.  146) 
play  in  the  dissemination  of  diseases  which  could  be 
largely  avoided  by  proper  quarantine  and  methods  of 
disinfection. 

Quarantine  and  Disinfection.  By  quarantining  is 
meant  the  separation  of  the  diseased  from  the  undiseased 

110 


THE  DAIRY   HERD  111 

animals.  If  an  animal  is  known  to  be  affected  with  some 
transmissible  disease,  its  prompt  removal  will  usually 
spare  the  rest  of  the  animals  in  the  herd  from  the  dis- 
ease, especially  if  such  removal  is  accompanied  by  proper 
methods  of  disinfection.  The  latter  refers  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  causal  agents  of  the  disease  by  the  use  of 
germicides  or  disinfectants,  substances  which  have  the 
power  of  killing  bacteria  and  allied  organisms. 

Disinfectants.  The  following  is  a  list  of  well-known 
disinfectants : 

1.  Boiling  water  applied  for  20  minutes. 

2.  A  5  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid. 

3.  A  2  per  cent  solution  of  zenolium. 

4.  A  2  per  cent  solution  of  chloro-naptholeum. 

5.  A  5  per  cent  solution  of  copper  sulfate. 

6.  A  solution  of  1-2000  of  mercuric  chloride. 

7.  A  2  per  cent  solution  of  creolin. 

8.  A  i-iooo  solution  of  chlorid  of  zinc 

Purgatives.  A  purgative  is  a  substance  used  to  in- 
duce, action  of  the  bowels.  Among  the  common  purga- 
tives the  following  may  be  mentioned:  i  to  2  pints  of 
raw  linseed  oil ;  a  mixture  of  i  pound  of  Epsom  salts 
and  I  to  2  ounces  of  ginger  dissolved  in  2  pints  of  warm 
water;  i  pound  of  Glauber  salts  dissolved  in  water;  or 
I   pint  of  castor  oil. 

As  a  rule  the  best  thing  to  do  at  the  first  signs  of  ill- 
ness, such  as  loss  of  appetite,  failure  to  chew  the  cud, 
dull  eyes,  dry  muzzle,  parched  skin,  rough  coat,  etc., 
is  to  administer  a  good  purgative.  This  alone  is  fre- 
quently sufficient  to  relieve  the  trouble. 


112  DAIRY   FARMING 


MILK   FEVER. 

Causes.  Overfeeding,  lack  of  exercise,  impure  air. 
constipation,  and  drinking  cold  water  are  common  causes 
of  milk  fever.  Withdrawing  all  the  milk  from  the  udder 
during  the  first  24  hours  after  calving  is  claimed  to  be 
conducive  to  the  disease.  Furthermore,  heavy  milkers 
are  far  more  subject  to  the  disease  than  medium  or  small 
milkers. 

Symptoms.  Restlessness  followed  by  a  weakening  of 
the  muscles,  causing  the  animal  finally  to  stagger  and 
fall.  The  cow  usually  lies  on  her  breast  bone  with  her 
head  completely  drawn  around  to  one  side.  The  udder 
becomes  soft  and  empty,  pulse  weak  and  rapid,  the  tem- 
perature falls  below  normal,  and  the  animal  may  become 
completely  unconscious. 

Treatment.  Fortunately  there  is  available  now  a  very 
simple,  sure,  and  inexpensive  treatment  for  milk  fever. 
The  treatment  consists  in  filling  the  udder  with  sterile 
air  by  means  of  a  syringe  which  draws  the  air  through 
a  tube  containing  absorbent  cotton.  Such  a  syringe  can 
be  obtained  at  very  small  cost  from  the  manufacturers 
who  advertise  extensively  through  the  dairy  press,  and 
every  dairyman  should  possess  one  so  as  to  be  prepared 
to  meet  emergencies  promptly. 

Before  injecting  the  air,  the  hands,  teats,  udder,  and 
the  tube  that  is  to  be  inserted  into  the  teats,  should  be 
carefully  disinfected.  This  done,  each  quarter  of  the 
udder  is  thoroughly  inflated  with  air,  kneading  and  rub- 
bing the  udder  as  much  as  possible  during  the  process 
to  secure  a  thorough  and  rapid  diffusion  of  the  air.  As 
soon  as  each  quarter  is  filled,  a  wide  band  is  tied  around 
the   top  of   the   teat   to  prevent  leakage   of  air.     These 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  113 

bands  should  not  be  drawn  any  tighter  than  necessary 
and  may  be  removed  soon  after  the  cow  gets  on  her  feet. 
Repeat  the  treatment  if  necessary. 

The  treatment  above  described  usually  brings  relief 
within  a  few  hours.  In  a  number  of  emergencies  cows 
have  been  successfully  treated  by  pumping  unfiltered  air 
into  the  udder  with  a  bicycle  pump ;  but  this  is  liable  to 
result  in  serious  infection  of  the  udder  and  should  be 
practiced  only  in  an  emergency. 

The  injection  of  a  gallon  of  warm,  soapy  water  into 
the  rectum  is  also  desirable.  Never  administer  drenches 
when  the  animal  is  partially  unconscious. 

ABORTION. 

By  abortion  is  meant  the  premature  birth  of  the  calf. 
Two  forms  of  this  ailment  are  common:  (i)  con- 
tagious abortion  caused  by  bacteria;  and  (2)  accidental 
abortion  caused  by  a  serious  nervous  shock.  The  latter 
may  result  from  external  or  internal  injuries,  drinking 
cold  or  stagnant  water,  bad  nutrition,  exposure  to  in- 
clement weather,  impure  atmosphere,  and  various  con- 
stitirtional  diseases.  Whenever  abortions  occur  appar- 
ently without  cause,  they  should  be  treated  as  contagious. 

Contagious  Abortion.  This  is  a  very  menacing  dis- 
ease among  dairy  cattle.  It  is  caused  by  bacteria  which 
find  their  way  into  the  reproductive  organs.  The  disease 
can  be  successfully  combatted  only  by  rigid  methods  of 
disinfection  and  prompt  quarantining  of  the  aborting 
animals.  The  dead  offspring,  afterbirth,  and  stable  litter 
should  at  once  be  burned,  or  buried  and  covered  with 
quick  lime.  The  stalls  and  walls  should  be  washed  with 
a  I -1000  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate,  while  the  floor 
mav  be  disinfected  with  a  liberal  amount  of  quick  lime. 


114  DAIRY   FARMING 

The  vagina  and  uterus  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected 
daily  with  chlorid  of  zinc,  creolin,  or  corrosive  sublimate 
solution  of  proper  strength  until  the  cow  ceases  discharg- 
ing. The  same  antiseptic  treatment  should  be  applied 
frequently  to  the  external  genitals  and  adjacent  region 
of  uninfected  cows.  If  the  afterbirth  is  retained  longer 
than  24  hours  it  should  be  removed  by  hand. 

Cows  that  have  aborted  should  not  be  bred  until  they 
have  ceased  discharging,  and  it  is  important  to  keep  them 
from  the  rest  of  the  herd  until  they  have  dropped  a  full- 
grown  calf. 

A  prolific  means  of  spreading  the  infection  of  this  dis- 
ease is  the  bull.  A  bull  that  has  served  infected  cows 
will  infect  other  cows  he  serves  unless  his  penis  and 
sheath  have  been  thoroughly  disinfected.  One  to  two 
quarts  of  2  per  cent  coal  tar  disinfectant  worked  up  into 
the  sheath  will  answer  the  purpose  satisfactorily. 

GARGET. 

Causes.  Injuries  of  the  udder,  overfeeding,  exposure 
to  severe  cold,  overcrowding  of  the  udder  by  skipping  a 
milking,  and  germ  infection. 

Symptoms.  Watery,  stringy  milk,  frequently  contain- 
ing blood;  swelling  and  hardening  of  one,  two,  or  all 
quarters  of  the  udder,  which  has  a  more  or  less  reddish, 
inflamed  appearance ;  and  the  formation  of  pus  in  the 
more  advanced  stages. 

Treatment.  Give  i]/^  pounds  of  Epsom  salts  and  i 
ounce  of  ginger,  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  tepid  water.  Sup- 
port the  udder  by  means  of  a  wide  bandage  tied  at  the 
top  line  of  the  animal,  and  pack  a  layer  of  bran  between 
the  bandage  and  the  diseased  portion  of  the  udder.  Heat 
the  bran  by  pouring  hot  water  over  it.     The  hot  water 


THE   DAIRY   HISRD  115 

treatment  should  be  repeated  at  short  intervals  and  should 
be  followed  by  thorough  rubbing  of  the  udder  with  lard 
or  raw  linseed  oil,  a  treatment  which  may  be  continued 
to  advantage  for  20  minutes.  The  rubbing  materially 
relieves  the  swelling  and  stimulates  the  secretion  of  milk. 
It  is  important  also  to  milk  the  diseased  quarter  or  quar- 
ters clean  at  short  intervals.  The  air  treatment  for  milk 
fever  has  also  been  recommended  for  garget. 

NON-INFECTIOUS  ''CALF  SCOURS." 

Causes.  Feeding  cold,  dirty,  old,  or  too  much,  milk; 
drinking  cold  or  impure  water;  irregularities  in  feeding; 
feeding  from  unscalded  buckets ;  and  confinement  in  dark, 
cold,  or  filthy  stalls. 

Treatment.  Reduce  the  amount  of  milk ;  feed  the 
milk  fresh  and  at  body  temperature;  feed  not  less  than 
three  times  a  day,  and  use  only  clean,  sterilized  milk 
buckets.  Give  only  pure  water  at  body  temperature,  and 
add  formalin  to  the  milk  in  the  proportion  of  one  part 
formalin  to  4,000  parts  of  milk  until  the  diarrhea  or. 
"scours"  is  checked.  The  scouring  is  usually  due  to  the 
action  of  fermentative  or  putrefactive  bacteria  which  are 
killed  or  checked  by  the  action  of  the  formalin. 

INFECTIOUS   ''calf   SCOURS."" 

This  disease  is  commonly  known  as  white  scours  and 
is  caused  by  bacteria.  It  affects  calves  usually  from  a 
few  hours  to  a  few  days  old,  and  is  very  fatal.  The  dis- 
charges are  usually  of  a  rather  light  color  and  have  an 
offensive  odor.  Medicine  is  of  little  avail.  The  disease 
must  therefore  be  combatted  by  methods  of  prevention. 
Washing  the  vagina  of  the  cow  with  disinfectant  solu- 
tion shortly  before  calving,  disinfecting  the  navel  of  the 


116  DAIRY   FARMING 

new-born  calf  at  short  intervals  for  a  few  days,  and  plac- 
ing the  calf  in  a  disinfected  stall,  are  good  measures  of 
prevention. 

INDIGESTION. 

Causes.  Overfeeding;  feeding  too  much  coarse,  indi- 
gestible feed ;  sudden  changes  of  feed ;  stale,  moldy,  frosted 
or  decomposing  feeds ;  irregularities  of  feeding ;  and  lack 
of  exercise. 

Symptoms.  Loss  of  appetite,  suspended  rumination, 
dull,  sickly  appearance,  and  usually  constipation. 

Treatment.  Feed  light  ration  containing  laxative  and 
green  feeds,  such  as  linseed  meal,  pasture,  roots,  silage, 
etc.  Supply  plenty  of  water  and  give  i  to  i}4  pounds 
of  Epsom  salts  and  i  ounce  ginger,  or  i  to  2  pints  of 
raw  linseed  oil,  according  to  the  degree  of  constipation. 

RETENTION    OF  AFTERBIRTH. 

If  the  afterbirth  does  not  come  away  within  48  hours 
it  should  be  removed  by  hand.  Carefully  disinfect  the 
hand  and  arm,  grease  the  same  and  insert  into  the  womb, 
where  the  afterbirth  must  be  carefully  loosened  from  the 
button-like  projections  to  which  it  is  attached.  As  soon 
as  removed,  flush  out  the  vagina  and  womb  with  warm 
disinfectant  solution. 

\\^hen  cows  are  provided  with  laxative  feed  and  warm 
water  shortly  before  and  after  calving,  the  afterbirth  will 
almost  always  drop  away  in  due  time.  If  the  bowels  are 
not  perfectly  loose  at  calving  time,  administer  a  purga- 
tive. 

The  retention  of  the  afterbirth  for  a  longer  period  than 
48  hours  will  cause  it  gradually  to  decompose  and  slough 
off,  causing  a  foul  discharge  from  the  vagina  and  seri- 


THE   DAIRY   HERD  117 

ously  impairing  the  health  of  the  animal.  Blood  poison- 
ing mav  also  result  from  the  prolonged  retention  of  the 
afterbirth. 

INVERSION  01?  THE  WOMB. 

Severe  straining  after  calving  may  cause  the  further 
portion  of  the  womb  to  protrude  through  the  opening 
leading  into  it,  thus  causing  an  inversion  of  the  organ. 
In  this  inverted  condition  a  portion  or  all  of  it  may  pass 
out  of  the  vagina.  As  soon  as  this  is  noticed,  wash  and 
disinfect  the  protruded  portion  and  push  it  back  into  its 
normal  position.  This  done,  apply  a  truss  or  pessary  to 
hold  the  womb  in  position  until  the  straining  or  expul- 
sive movements  cease. 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

Cause.  This  disease  is  caused  by  a  specific  organism 
known  as  the  tubercle  bacillus.  The  germs  are  commonly 
inhaled,  though  they  may  also  be  taken  into  the  body 
through  the  food.  Unsanitary  stabling,  lack  of  nourish- 
ment, and  inherent  constitutional  weakness,  are  greatly 
responsible  for  the  prevalence  of  this  disease. 

Symptoms.  A  short  cough,  enlargement  of  the  lymph 
glands  at  the  throat,  emaciation,  and  a  general  unthrifty 
appearance.  In  its  early  stages  it  is  difficult,  however,  to 
detect  the  disease  except  by  the  tuberculin  test. 

The  Tuberculin  Test.  The  usefulness  of  this  test  as 
a  diagnostic  agent  rests  upon  the  fact  that  when  a  sub- 
stance called  "tuberculin"  is  injected  under  the  skin  of 
an  animal,  the  injection  is  followed  by  a  rise  of  tempera- 
ture in  infected  animals,  while  in  those  unaffected  the 
temperature  remains  the  same.  It  must  be  added,  how- 
ever, that  in  the  last  stages  of  the  disease,  tuberculin  fails 


118  DAIRY    FARMING 

as  a  diagnostic  agent,  but  this  is  of  little  consequence 
since  the  disease  is  readily  recognized  in  these  stages  by 
a  physical  examination. 

Method  of  Making  the  Tuberculin  Test.  In  making 
this  test  the  following  particulars  must  be  observed: 

1.  Secure  the  necessary  tuberculin  from  the  govern- 
ment. 

2.  Secure  a  clinical  thermometer,  a  sharp,  hollow 
needle,  and  a  graduated,  hypodermic  syringe  from  deal- 
ers in  veterinary  instruments. 

3.  Make  the  test  during  the  cooler  season  of  the  year. 

4.  Do  not  test  cows  shortly  before  or  after  calving. 

5.  Do  not  test  cows  that  are  in  heat,  or  suffering  from 
garget  or  other  diseases. 

6.  Do  not  allow  cows  to  drink  very  cold  water. 

7.  Keep  the  animals  in  a  normal  condition  as  to  feed, 
confinement,  etc.,  during  the  test. 

8.  Do  not  test  animals  which  show  a  temperature  as 
high  as  103°  F. 

Proceed  wdth  the  test  as  follows :  First  ascertain  the 
normal  temperature  of  the  cows  by  holding  a  clinical 
thermometer  in  the  rectum  for  about  ive  minutes.  Three 
observations  are  necessary:  One  at  6  a.  m.,  another  at 
noon,  and  the  last  at  6  p.  m.  At  10  p.  m.,  the  same  day, 
inject  under  the  skin  at  the  neck  or  shoulder,  2  cubic 
centimeters  of  tuberculin  for  animals  of  about  1,000 
pounds  live  weight  and  proportionally  more  for  heavier 
cows.  At  6  o'clock  the  next  morning  take  the  tempera- 
ture again  as  before,  but  at  intervals  of  two  hours  until 
five  or  six  readings  have  been  taken.  If  the  maximum 
temperature  after  the  injection  is  two  or  more  degrees 
higher  than  it  was  before  the  injection  of  the  tuberculin, 
the  animal  is  considered  tuberculous.     If  the  rise  of  tem- 


THE  DAIRY  HERD  119 

perature  is  one  and  a  half  degrees,  the  case  may  be  con- 
sidered suspicious. 

The  needle  and  place  of  injection  should  be  disinfected, 
and  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  excite  the  cows  dur- 
ing any  period  of  the  test.  Do  not  retest  for  tuberculosis 
within  60  days.  As  a  rule  every  cow  in  the  herd  should 
be  tested  once  a  year  for  tuberculosis. 

BARRENNi:SS. 

Causes.  Lack  of  exercise,  improper  feeding,  in-and- 
in  breeding,  closing  of  the  mouth  of  the  womb,  and  an 
acid  condition  of  the  vagina. 

Treatment.  If  overfat  reduce  the  amount  of  feed  and 
give  plenty  of  exercise.  If  the  mouth  of  the  womb  is 
closed,  open  by  inserting  the  forefinger  or  by  applying 
solid  extract  of  Belladonna  to  the  part.  An  acid  con- 
dition of  the  vagina  may  be  overcome  by  thorough  syring- 
ing with  2  per  cent  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  a 
few  hours  previous  to  service.  A  treatment  much  recom- 
mended lately  is  known  as  the  yeast  treatment  and  is 
used  as  follows  :  Dissolve  an  ordinary  compressed  yeast 
cake  in  a  cup  of  warm  water  and  allow  to  ferment.  Add 
this  to  a  quart  of  warm  water  and  use  to  wash  out  the 
vagina  some  hours  before  service.  The  vagina  should 
be  washed  out  with  soapy  water  just  previous  to  the 
injection  of  the  yeast  solution. 

BIvOAT  OR  HOVEN. 

Causes.  Overeating,  suddenly  turning  cows  on  rich, 
green  feed,  like  clover  pasture,  and  fermentation  of  the 
feed.  There  is  as  a  rule  a  great  deal  of  gas  produced, 
causing  a  great  distention  of  the  left  side. 

Treatment.     Immediately  place  a  gag  in  the  mouth, 


120  DAIRY   f  ARMING 

and  in  mild  cases,  give  an  ounce  of  spirits  of  turpentine 
and  one-half  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil.  Keep  the  animal 
moving  and  pour  cold  water  on  the  loins.  When  relief 
comes,  administer  a  purgative. 

In  severe  cases  tap  the  left  side  (paunch)  with  a 
slender  knife  or  a  trocar.  Tap  at  a  point  equidistant 
from  the  point  of  the  hip,  the  last  rib,  and  the  spinal 
column. 

TEAT    TROUBLES. 

Hard  Milkers.  Hard  milking  is  caused  by  too  small 
an  opening  in  the  teat.  Enlarge  the  opening  by  using  a 
teat  bistoury  when  the  cow  is  in  full  flow  of  milk. 

Sore  or  Chapped  Teats.  Due  to  exposure  to  cold, 
wet  -weather  and  rough  handling.  Treat  with  lard  or 
vaseline. 

Warts.     ]\ray  be  removed  by  applying  lunar  caustic. 

Closed  or  Obstructed  Teats.  Caused  by  injury  or 
clotted  milk.    Keep  open  by  inserting  a  milk  tube. 

Leaky  Teats.  Prevent  unusual  distention  by  milking 
three  or  four  times  daily.  If  this  is  not  sufficient,  a  fairly 
tight  fitting  bandage,  like  the  finger  of  a  glove,  may  be 
placed  around  the  teat. 

STRINGY   OR  ROPEY    MILK. 

This  is  due  to  certain  species  of  bacteria  which  find 
their  way  into  the  udder  through  the  teats.  These  bac- 
teria are  associated  with  filth  and  the  trouble  must  be 
overcome  by  keeping  cows  away  from  filthy  places. 
This  trouble  should  not  be  confused  with  garget. 

BLOODY    MILK. 

This  is  usually  due  to  an  injury  to  the  udder.  Bathe 
the  udder  with  hot  water  and  apply  lard. 


THE   DAIRY  HERD  121 

SELF-SUCKING   COWS. 

Prevent  by  putting  a  halter  on  the  cow  with  a  strong, 
stiff  piece  of  leather  running  over  the  nose.  Fill  this 
strip  of  leather  with  sharp  nails. 

LICE. 

Two  per  cent  coal  tar  disinfectants  are  usually  used 
for  killing  lice.  The  Oklahoma  station  recommends  a 
"kerosene  emulsion,"  which  is  made  by  using  y2  pound 
hard  soap,  2  gallons  of  a  cheap  grade  of  kerosene  and 
I  gallon  of  water.  Cut  up  the  soap  and  dissolve  in  hot 
water;  then  add  the  kerosene  and  thoroughly  mix.  Be- 
fore applying  to  the  animals  dilute  this  mixture  with 
7  gallons  of  water.  Apply  by  means  of  a  sponge,  brush, 
or  spray  pump. 

WARBLES    OR    GRUBS. 

These  are  found  just  below  the  skin  in  the  backs  of 
cattle  and  constitute  the  larval  form  of  the  ox  bot-fly 
or  heel-i^y.  As  they  develop  they  cause  swellings  in 
the  back  and  are  thus  easily  recognized.  Wherever  there 
is  a  swelling  there  is  also  an  opening  in  the  skin  through 
which  the  grubs  may  be  easily  squeezed  and  killed.  They 
may  also  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  kerosene. 


PART  IL 

MILK   AND  ITS   PRODUCTS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


MILK. 


Milk,  In  a  broad  sense,  may  be  defined  as  the  normal 
secretion  of  the  mammary  glands  of  animals  that  suckle 
their  young.  It  is  the  only  food  found  in  Nature  con- 
taining all  the  elements  necessary  to  sustain  life.  More- 
over it  contains  these  elements  in  the  proper  propor- 
tions and  in  easily  digestible  and  assimilable  form. 


Microscopic  appearance  of  milk  showingrelative  size  of  fat  globules  and 
bacteria.— Russell's  Dairy  Bacteriology. 

Physical  Properties.  Milk  is  a  whitish  opaque  fluid 
possessing  a  sweetish  taste  and  a  faint  odor  suggestive 
of  cows'  breath.     It  has  an  amphioteric  reaction,  that  is, 

123 


124  DAIRY   FARMING 

it  is  both  acid  and  alkaline.  This  double  reaction  is  due 
largely  to  acid  and  alkaline  salts  and  possibly  to  small 
quantities  of  organic  acids. 

Milk  has  an  average  normal  specific  gravity  of  1.032, 
with  extremes  rarely  exceeding  1.029  and  1.033.  After 
standing  a  few  moments  it  loses  its  homogenous  character. 
Evidence  of  this  we  have  in  the  ''rising  of  the  cream." 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  milk  is  not  a  perfect  solution 
but  an  emulsion.  All  of  the  fat,  the  larger  portion  of  the 
casein,  and  part  of  the  ash  are  in  suspension. 

In  consistency  milk  is  slightly  more  viscous  than  water, 
the  viscosity  increasing  with  the  decrease  in  temperature. 
It  is  also  exceedingly  sensitive  to  odors,  possessing  great 
absorption  properties.  This  teaches  the  necessity  of  plac- 
ing milk  in  clean  pure  surroundings. 

Chemical  Composition.  The  composition  of  milk  is 
very  complex  and  variable,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing figures: 

Average  Composition  of  Normal  Milk.  A  com- 
pilation of  figures  from  various  American  Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Water  87.1^ 

Butter  fat 3.9^ 

Casein    2.9/^ 

Albumen 5^ 

Sugar 4.9^ 

Ash • 7^ 

Fibrin     Trace. 

Galactase  Trace. 


100.  oj^ 


The  great  variations  in  the  composition  of  milk  are 
shown  by  the  figures  from  Koenig,  given  below : 


MILK   AND    ITS  PRODUCTS  125 

Maximum.  Minimum. 

Water    90.69  80.32 

Fat   6.47  1-67 

Casein    423  1-79 

Albumen   1.44  -25 

Sugar  6.03  2. II 

Ash  1. 21  .35 

These  figures  represent  quite  accurately  the  maximum 
and  minimum  composition  of  milk  except  that  the  maxi- 
mum for  fat  is  too  low.  The  author  has  known  cows 
to  yield  milk  testing  7.6%  fat,  and  records  show  tests 
even  higher  than  this. 

BUTTER  FAT. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  the  most  variable 
constituent  of  milk.  It  constitutes  about  83%  of  butter 
and  is  an  indispensable  constituent  of  the  many  kinds  of 
whole  milk  cheese  now  found  upon  the  market.  It  also 
measures  the  commercial  value  of  milk  and  cream,  and 
is  used  as  an  index  of  the  value  of  milk  for  butter  and 
cheese  production. 

Physical  Properties.  Butter  fat  is  suspended  in  milk 
in  the  form  of  extremely  small  globules  numbering  about 
100,000,000  per  drop  of  milk.  These  globules  vary  con- 
siderably in  size  in  any  given  sample,  some  being  five 
times  as  large  as  others.  The  size  of  the  globules  is 
affected  mostly  by  the  period  of  lactation.  As  a  rule  the 
size  decreases  and  the  number  increases  with  the  advance 
of  the  period.  In  strippers'  milk  the  globules  are  some- 
times so  small  as  to  render  an  efficient  separation  of  the 
cream  and  the  churning  of  same  impossible. 

The  size  of  the  fat  globules  also  varies  with  different 
breeds.    In  the  Jersey  breed  the  diameter  of  the  globule 


126  DAIRY  FARMING 

is  one  eight-thousandth  of  an  inch,  in  the  Holstein  one 
twelve-thousandth,  while  the  average  for  all  breeds  is 
about  one  ten-thousandth. 

Night's  milk  usually  has  smaller  globules  than  morn- 
ing's. The  size  of  the  globules  also  decreases  with  the 
age  of  the  cow. 

The  density  or  specific  gravity  of  butter  fat  at  ioo°  F. 
is  .91  and  is  quite  constant.  Its  melting  point  varies 
between  wide  limits,  the  average  being  92°   F. 

Composition  of  Butter  Fat.  According  to  Richmond, 
butter  fat  has  the  following  composition : 

Butyrin    3-^5  ) 

Caproin   3  -60  I  Soluble  or    volatile. 

Caprylin    55  \ 


Caprin    i .  90 

Laurin    7.40 

Myristin    20.20 

Palmitin    25.70 

Stearin  1.80 

Olein,  etc 35-00 


Insoluble  or 
non-volatile. 


This  shows  butter  fat  to  be  composed  of  no  less  than 
nine  distinct  fats,  which  are  formed  by  the  union  of 
glycerine  with  the  corresponding  fatty  acids.  Thus,  buty- 
rin is  a  compound  of  glycerine  and  butyric  acid ;  palmitin, 
a  compound  of  glycerine  and  palmitic  acid,  etc.  The 
most  important  of  these  acids  are  palmitic,  oleic,  and 
butyric. 

Palmitic  acid  is  insoluble,  melts  at  144°  F.,  and  forms 
(with  stearic  acid)  the  basis  of  hard  fats. 

Oleic  acid  is  insoluble,  melts  at  57°  F.,  and  forms  the 
basis  of  soft  fats. 


MILK   AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  127 

Butyric  acid  is  soluble  and  is  a  liquid  which  solidifies 
at  — 2°  F.  and  melts  again  at  28°  F. 

Insoluble  Fats.  A  study  of  these  fats  is  essential  in 
elucidating  the  variability  of  the  churning  temperature 
of  cream.  As  a  rule  this  is  largely  determined  by  the 
relative  amounts  of  hard  and  soft  fats  present  in  butter 
fat.  Other  conditions  the  same,  the  harder  the  fat  the 
higher  the  churning  temperature.  Scarcely  any  two  milks 
contain  exactly  the  same  relative  amounts  of  hard  and 
soft  fats,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  churning  tem- 
perature is  such  a  variable  one. 

The  relative  amounts  of  hard  and  soft  fats  are  influ- 
enced by: 

1.  Breeds. 

2.  Feeds. 

3.  Period  of  lactation. 

4.  Individuality  of  cows. 

The  butter  fat  of  Jerseys  is  harder  than  that  of  Hol- 
steins  and,  therefore,  requires  a  relatively  high  churning 
temperature,  the  difference  being  about  six  degrees. 

Feeds  have  an  important  influence  upon  the  character 
of  the  butter  fat.  Cotton  seed  meal  and  bran,  for  example, 
materially  increase  the  percentage  of  hard  fats.  Gluten 
feeds  and  linseed  meal,  on  the  other  hand,  produce  a  soft 
butter  fat. 

With  the  advance  of  the  period  of  lactation  the  per- 
centage of  hard  fat  increases.  This  chemical  change,  to- 
gether with  the  physical  change  which  butter  fat  under- 
goes, makes  churning  difficult  in  the  late  period  of  lac- 
tation. 

The  individuality  of  the  cow  also  to  a  great  extent 
influences  the  character  of  the  butter  fat.     It  is  inherent 


128  DAIRY   FARMING 

in  some  cows  to  produce  a  soft  butter  fat,  in  others  to 
produce  a  hard  butter  fat,  even  in  cows  of  the  same  breed. 

Soluble  Fats.  The  sohible  or  volatile  fats,  of  which 
butyrin  is  the  most  important,  give  milk  and  sweet  cream 
butter  their  characteristic  flavors.    Butyrin  is  found  only 
in  butter   fat  and  distinguishes  this  from  all  vegetable 
and  other  animal  fats. 

The  percentage  of  soluble  fats  decreases  with  the  period 
of  lactation,  also  with  the  feeding  of  dry  feeds  and  those 
rich  in  protein.  Succulent  feeds  and  those  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates, according  to  experiments  made  in  Holland  and 
elsewhere,  increase  the  percentage  of  soluble  fats.  This 
may  partly  account  for  the  superiority  of  the  flavor  of 
June  butter. 

It  may  be  proper,  also,  to  discuss  under  volatile  or 
soluble  fats  those  abnormal  flavors  that  are  imparted  to 
milk,  cream,  and  butter  by  weeds  like  garlic  and  wild 
onions,  and  by  various  feeds  such  as  beet  tops,  rape,  par- 
tially spoiled  silage,  etc.  These  flavors  are  undoubtedly 
due  to  abnormal  volatile  fats. 

Cows  should  never  be  fed  strong  flavored  feeds  shortly 
before  milking.  When  this  is  done  the  odors  are  sure 
to  be  transmitted  to  the  milk  and  the  products  therefrom. 
W^hen,  however,  feeds  of  this  kind  are  fed  shortly  after 
milking  no  bad  effects  will  be  noticed  at  the  next  milking. 

Albumenoids.  These  are  nitrogenous  compounds 
which  give  milk  its  high  dietetic  value.  Casein,  albumen, 
globulin,  and  nuclein  form  the  albumenoids  of  milk,  the 
casein  and  albumen  being  by  far  the  most  important. 

Casein.  This  is  a  white  colloidal  substance^  possessing 
neither  taste  nor  smell.  It  is  the  most  important  tissue- 
forming  constituent  of  milk  and  forms  the  basis  of  an 
almost  endless  variety  of  cheese. 


MILK   AND    ITS   PRODUCTS  129 

The  larger  portion  of  the  casein  is  suspended  in  milk 
in  an  extremely  finely  divided  amorphus  condition.  It  is 
intimately  associated  with  the  insoluble  calcium  phosphate 
of  milk  and  possibly  held  in  chemical  combination  with 
this.  Its  study  presents  many  difficulties,  which  leaves  its 
exact  composition  still  undetermined. 

Casein  is  easily  precipitated  by  means  of  rennet  extract 
and  dilute  acids,  but  the  resulting  precipitates  are  not 
identically  the  same.    It  is  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

Albumen.  In  composition  albumen  very  closely  re- 
sembles casein,  differing  from  it  chiefly  in  being  rich  in 
sulphur  but  lacking  in  phosporus.  It  is  soluble  and  un- 
affected by  rennet,  which  causes  most  of  it  to  pass  into  the 
whey  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  It  is  coagulated  at  a 
temperature  of  170°  F.  It  is  in  their  behavior  toward  heat 
and  rennet  that  casein  and  albumen  radically  differ. 

Milk  Sugar.  This  sugar,  commonly  called  lactose,  has 
the  same  chemical  composition  as  cane  sugar,  differing 
from  it  chiefly  in  possessing  only  a  faint  sweetish  taste. 
It  readily  changes  into  lactic  acid  when  acted  upon  by 
the  lactic  acid  bacteria.  This  causes  the  ordinary  phenom- 
enon of  milk  souring.  The  maximum  amount  of  acid  in 
milk  rarely  exceeds  .9%,  the  germs  usually  being  checked 
or  killed  before  this  amount  is  formed.  There  is  there- 
fore always  a  large  portion  of  the  sugar  left  in  sour  milk. 
All  of  the  milk  sugar  is  in  solution. 

Ash.  Most  of  the  ash  of  milk  exists  in  solution.  It 
is  composed  of  lime,  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  phosphoric 
acid,  chlorine,  and  iron,  the  soluble  lime  being  the  most 
important  constituent.  It  is  upon  this  that  the  action  of 
rennet  extract  is  dependent.  For  when  milk  is  heated 
to  high  temperatures  the  soluble  lime  is  rendered  insoluble 
and  rennet  will  no  longer  curdle  milk.    It  seems  also  that 


130  DAIRY   FARMING 

the  viscosity  of  milk  and  cream  is  largely  due  to  soluble 
lime  salts.  Cream  heated  to  high  temperatures  loses  its 
viscosity  to  such  an  extent  that  it  can  not  be  made  to 
*Vhip."  Treatment  with  soluble  lime  restores  its  orig- 
inal viscosity.  The  ash  is  the  least  variable  constituent 
of  milk. 

Colostrum  Milk.  This  is  the  first  milk  drawn  after 
parturition.  It  is  characterized  by  its  peculiar  odor,  yel- 
low color,  broken  down  cells,  and  high  content  of  albu- 
men which  gives  it  its  viscous,  slimy  appearance  and 
causes  it  to  coagulate  on  application  of  heat. 

According  to  Eugling  the  average  composition  of  colos- 
trum milk  is  as  follows: 

Water    71. 69^^ 

Fat  3.37 

Casein    4.83 

Albumen   15.85 

Sugar  2.48 

Ash 1.78 

The  secretion  of  colostrum  milk  is  of  very  short  dura- 
tion. Usually  within  four  or  five  days  after  calving  it 
assumes  all  the  properties  of  normal  milk.  In  some  cases, 
however,  it  does  not  become  normal  till  the  sixth  or  even 
the  tenth  day,  depending  largely  upon  the  condition  of 
the  animal. 

A  good  criterion  in  the  detection  of  colostrum  milk  is 
its  peculiar  color,  odor,  and  slimy  appearance.  The  dis- 
appearance of  these  characteristics  determines  its  fitness 
for  butter  production. 

Milk  Secretion.  Just  how  all  of  the  different  con- 
stituents of  milk  are  secreted  is  not  yet  definitely 
understood.     But  it  is  known  that  the  secretion  takes 


MILK   AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  131 

place  in  the  udder  of  the  cow,  and  principally  during  the 
process  of  milking.  Further,  the  entire  process  of  milk 
elaboration  seems  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  nervous 
system  of  the  cow.  This  accounts  for  the  changes  in  flow 
and  richness  of  milk  whenever  cows  are  subjected  to 
abnormal  treatment.  It  is  well  known  that  a  change  of 
milkers,  the  use  of  rough  language,  or  the  abuse  of  cows 
with  dogs  and  milk  stools,  seriously  affects  the  production 
of  milk  and  butter  fat.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest 
practical  importance  to  milk  producers  to  treat  cows 
as  gently  as  possible,  especially  during  the  process  of 
milking. 

How  Secreted.  The  source  from  which  the  milk  con- 
stituents are  elaborated  is  the  blood.  It  must  not  be  sup- 
posed, however,  that  all  the  different  constituents  already 
exist  in  the  blood  in  the  form  in  which  we  find  them  in 
milk,  for  the  blood  is  practically  free  from  fat,  casein, 
and  milk  sugar.  These  substances  must  then  be  formed  in 
the  cells  of  the  udder  from  material  supplied  them  by  the 
blood.  Thus  there  are  in  the  udder  cells  that  have  the 
power  of  secreting  fat  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  by 
which  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  in  the  stomach.  Simi- 
larly, the  formation  of  lactose  is  the  result  of  the  action 
of  another  set  of  cells  whose  function  is  to  produce  lac- 
tose. It  is  believed  that  the  casein  is  formed  from  the 
albumen  through  the  activity  of  certain  other  cells.  The 
water,  albumen,  and  soluble  ash  probably  pass  directly 
from  the  blood  into  the  milk  ducts  by  the  process  known 
as  osmosis. 

Variations  in  the  Quality  of  Milk.  Milk  from  dif- 
ferent sources  may  vary  considerably  in  composition, 
particularly  in  the  percentage  of  butter  fat.     Even  the 


132  DAIRY   FARMING 

milk  from  the  same  cow  may  vary  a  great  deal  in  compo- 
sition. The  causes  of  these  variations  may  be  assigned 
to  two  sets  of  conditions :  I. — Those  natural  to  the  cow. 
II. — Those  of  an  artificial  nature. 

I.      QUAI.ITY   OF   MILK   AS   AFFECTED  BY   NATURAL  CONDI- 
TIONS. 

1.  The  composition  of  the  milk  of  all  cows  undergoes 
a  change  with  the  advance  of  the  period  of  lactation. 
During  the  first  five  months  the  composition  remains  prac- 
tically the  same.  After  this,  however,  the  milk  becomes 
gradually  richer  until  the  cow  "dries  up."  The  following 
figures  from  \^an  Slyke  illustrate  this  change: 

Month  of  Per  cent  of  fat 

lactation.  in  milk. 

1 4-54 

2-.. 4-33 

3.... 4-28 

4 = 4-39 

5 4.38 

6 4-53 

7 456 

8 , 4.66 

9 ^ 4-79 

10 5.00 

It  will  be  noticed  from  these  figures  that  the  milk 
actually  decreases  somewhat  in  richness  during  the  first 
three  months  of  the  period.  But  just  before  the  cow  dries 
up,  it  may  test  as  high  as  8%. 

2.  The  quality  of  milk  also  differs  with  different 
breeds.  Yet  breed  differences  are  less  marked  than  those 
of  the  individual  cows  of  any  particular  breed. 

Some  breeds  produce  rich  milk,  others  relatively  poor 


MILK   AND    ITS  PRODUCTS 


133 


milk.     The  following  data  obtained  at  the  New  Jersey 
Experiment  Station  illustrates  these  differences: 


Br*eed. 

Total 
Solids. 

Fat. 

Milk 
Sugar. 

Proteids. 

Ash. 

Ayshire 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Tersev 

Per  cent. 
12.70 
14.48 
12.12 
14.34 

Per  cent. 
3.68 
5.02 
3.51 

4.78 

Per  cent. 
4.84 
4.80 
4.69 

4.85 

Per  cent. 
3.48 
3.92 
3.28 
3.96 

Per  cent. 
.69 
.75 
.64 
.75 

3.  Extremes  in  the  composition  of  milk  are  usually 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  individuality  or  "make  up"  of  the 
cow.  It  is  inherent  in  some  cows  to  produce  rich  milk, 
in  others  to  produce  poor  milk.  In  other  words,  Nature 
has  made  every  cow  to  produce  milk  of  a  given  richness, 
which  can  not  be  perceptibly  changed  except  by  careful 
selection  and  breeding  for  a  number  of  generations. 


II.'    QUALITY  01^  MILK  AS  AFl^ECTED  BY  ARTIFICIAL  CON- 
DITIONS. 

1.  When  cows  are  only  partially  milked  they  yield 
poorer  milk  than  when  milked  clean.  This  is  largely 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  first  drawn  milk  is  always 
poorer  in  fat  than  that  drawn  last.  Fore  milk  may  test 
as  low  as  .8%,  while  the  strippings  sometimes  test  as 
high  as  14%. 

2.  Fast  milking  increases  both  the  quality  and  the 
quantity  of  the  milk.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  fast  milkers 
are  so  much  preferred  to  slow  ones. 


134  DAIRY  FARMING 

3.  The  richness  of  milk  is  also  influenced  by  the  length 
of  time  that  elapses  between  the  milkings.  In  general, 
the  shorter  the  time  between  the  milkings  the  richer  the 
milk.  This,  no  doubt,  in  a  large  measure  accounts  for 
the  differences  we  often  find  in  the  richness  of  morning's 
and  night's  milk.  Sometimes  the  morning's  milk  is  the 
richer,  at  other  times  the  evening's,  depending  largely 
upon  the  time  of  day  the  cows  are  milked.  IMilk  can  not, 
however,  be  permanently  enriched  by  milking  three  times 
in  stead  of  twice  a  day. 

4.  Unusual  excitement  of  any  kind  reduces  the  quality 
of  milk.  The  person  who  abuses  cows  by  dogs,  milk 
stools,  or  boisterousness,  pays  dearly  for  it  in  a  reduction 
of  both  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  milk  produced. 

5.  Starvation  also  seriously  affects  both  the  quality 
and  the  quantity  of  milk.  It  has  been  repeatedly  shown,  in 
this  country  and  in  Europe,  that  under-feeding  to  any 
great  extent  results  in  the  production  of  milk  poor  in  fat. 

6.  Sudden  changes  of  feed  may  slightly  affect  the 
richness  of  milk,  but  only  temporarily. 

So  long  as  cows  are  fed  a  full  ration,  it  is  not  possible 
to  change  the  richness  of  milk  permanently,  no  matter 
what  the  character  of  feed  composing  the  ration. 

7.  Irregularities  of  feeding  and  milking,  exposure  to 
heat,  cold,  rain,  and  flies,  tend  to  reduce  both  the  quantity 
and  the  quality  of  milk  produced. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 


the:  babcock  test. 


This  is  a  cheap  and  simple  device  for  determining  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  milk,  cream,  skim-milk,  buttermilk, 
whey,  and  cheese.  It  was  invented  in  1890  by  Dr.  S.  M. 
Babcock,  of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion, and  ranks  among  the  leading  agricultural  inventions 
of  modern  times.  The  chief  uses  of  the  Babcock  test  may 
be  mentioned  as  follows : 

1.  It  has  made  possible  the  payment  for  milk  accord- 
ing to  its  quality. 

2.  It  has  enabled  butter  and  cheese  makers  to  detect 
undue  losses  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

3.  It  has  made  possible  the  grading  up  of  dairy  herds 
by  locating  the  poor  cows. 

4.  It  has,  in  a  large  measure,  done  away  with  the  prac- 
tice of  watering  and  skimming  milk. 

Principle  of  the  Babcock  Test.  The  separation  of 
the'  butter  fat  from  milk  with  the  Babcock  test  is  made 
possible : 

1.  By  the  difference  between  the  specific  gravity  of 
butter  fat  and  milk  serum. 

2.  By  the  centrifugal  force  generated  in  the  tester. 

3.  By  burning  the  solids  not  fat  with  a  strong  acid. 
Sample  for  a  Test.  Whatever  the  sample  to  be  tested, 

always  eighteen  grams  are  used  for  a  test.  In  testing 
cream  and  cheese,  the  sample  is  weighed.  For  testing 
milk,  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  whey,  weighing  requires 

135 


136 


DAIRY   FARMING 


too  much  time.     Indeed,  with  these  substances  weighing: 
is  not  necessary  as  sufficiently  accurate  samples  are  ob- 


Fig.  '29    Two  styles  of  Babcock  testers. 


tained  by  measuring  which  is  the  method  universally  em- 
ployed. In  making  a  Babcock  test  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  secure  a  uniform  sample  of  the  substance 
to  be  tested 


MILK   AXD   ITS  PRODUCTS  137 

Apparatus.  This  consists  essentially  of  the  following- 
parts  :  A,  Babcock  tester ;  B,  milk  bottle ;  C,  cream  bottle : 
D,  skim-milk  bottle ;  E,  pipette  or  milk  measure :  F,  acid 
measures :  G.  cream  scales ;  H,  mixing  cans ;  I,  dividers. 

A.  Babcock  Tester.  This  machine,  shown  in  Fig.  29. 
consists  of  a  revolving  wheel  placed  in  a  horizontal  posi- 
tion and  provided  with  swinging  pockets  for  the  bottles. 
This  wheel  is  rotated  by  means  of  a  worm  wheel  (lower 
machine)  at  the  top  of  the  tester.  WTien  the  tester  stops 
the  pockets  hang  down  allowing  the  bottles  to  stand  up. 
As  the  wheel  begins  rotating  the  pockets  move  out  causing 
the  bottles  to  assume  a  horizontal  position.  The  wheel  is 
enclosed  in  a  cast  iron  frame  provided  with  a  cover. 

B.  Milk  Bottle.  This  has  a  neck  graduated  to  ten 
large  divisions,  each  of  which  reads  one  per  cent.  Each 
large  division  is  subdivided  into  five  smaller  ones, 
making  each  subdivision  read  .2%.  The  contents  of  the 
neck  from  the  zero  mark  to  the  10%  mark  is  equivalent  to 
two  cubic  centimeters.  Since  the  Babcock  test  does  not 
give  the  percentage  of  fat  by  volume  but  by  weight,  the 
10%.  scale  on  the  neck  of  the  bottle  will,  therefore,  hold 
1.8  grams  of  fat.  In  other  words,  if  the  scale  were  filled 
with  water  it  would  hold  two  grams :  but  fat  being  only 
.9  as  heavy.  2  cubic  centimeters  of  it  would  weigh  nine- 
tenths  of  two  grams  or  1.8  grams.  This  is  exactly  10% 
of  18  grams,  the  weight  of  the  sample  used  for  testing. 
A  milk  bottle  is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

C.  Cream  Bottles.  These  are  graduated  from  30%  to 
55%.  A  3ofc  bottle  is  shown  in  Fig.  31.  Since  cream 
usually  tests  more  than  30%,  the  sample  must  be  divided 
wher.  the  30%  bottles  are  used. 


138 


DAIRY    FARMING 


Fig.  31. —Cream 
bottle. 


-^ 


^.tfew;^ 


,^*47:»| 


Fig.  32.— Skim-milk 
bottle. 


D.  Skim=milk  Bottle.  This  bottle,  shown  in  Fig.  32, 
is  provided  with  a  double  neck,  a  large  one  to  admit  the 
milk,  and  a  smaller  graduated  neck  for  fat  reading.  The 
entire  scale  reads  one-half  per  cent.  Being  divided  into 
ten  subdivisions  each  subdivision  reads  .05%.  The  same 
bottle  is  also  used  for  testing  buttermilk. 


MILK   AND    ITS  PRODUCTS 


139 


I 

\ 


1 


4L9 


Fig.34.- 

Fig.  35.- 

Acid  meas- 

Acid meas- 

ure. 

ure. 

E.  Pipette.  This  holds  17.6  c.c,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  33.  Since  about  .1  c.c.  of  milk  will 
adhere  to  the  inside  of  the  pipette  it  is  ex- 

I  pected  to  deliver  only  17.5  c.c,  which  is  eqiiiva- 

I  lent  to  18  grams  of  normal  milk. 

F.  Acid  Measures.  In  making  a  Babcock 
test  equal  quantities,  by  volume,  of  acid  and 
milk  are  used.     The  acid  measure,  shown  in 

Fig.  34,  holds  17.5  c.c.  of  acid,  the  amount  needed  for  one 
test.  The  one  shown  in  Fig.  35  is  divided  into  six  divisions, 
each  of  which  holds  17.5  c.c.  or  one  charge  of  acid-   \Miiere 


Fig.  33. —Pi 
pette. 


140 


DAIRY   FARMING 


many  tests  are  made  a  graduate  of  this  kind  saves  time 
in  filling,  but  should  be  made  to  hold  twenty-five  charges. 

H.  A  cream  scales  commonly  used  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  36. 

Acid.     The  acid  used  in  the  test  is  commercial  sui- 


ng. 36.— Cream  scales. 

phuric  acid  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82 
to  1.83.  \Mien  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
acid  falls  below  1.82  the  milk  solids  are  not 
properly  burned  and  particles  of  curd  may 
appear  in  the  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  an 
acid  with  a  specific  gravity  above  1.83  has 
a  tendency  to  blacken  or  char  the  fat. 

The  sulphuric  acid,  besides  burning  the 
solids  not  fat,  facilitates  the  separation  of 
the  fat  by  raising  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
medium  in  which  it  floats. 

Sulphuric  acid  must  be  kept  in  glass  bot- 
tles provided  with  glass  stoppers.  Exposure 
to  the  air  materially  weakens  it. 

Making  a  Babcock  Test.    The    diflferent 
indicated  as  follows : 

1.  Thoroughly  mix  the  sample. 

2.  Immediately  after  mixing  insert  the  pipette  into 
the  milk  and  suck  until  the  milk  has  gone  above  the  mark 
on  the  pipette,  then  quickly  place  the  fore  finger  over  the 


Fig.37.- Show- 
ing mannerof 
emptying  pi- 
pette. 

steps    are 


MILK   AXD   ITS  PRODUCTS 


141 


top  arid  allow  the  milk  to  run  down  to  the  mark  by  slowly 
relieving-  the  pressure  of  the  finger. 

3.  Empty  the  milk  into  the  bottle  in  the  manner  shown 
ni  Fig.  37. 

4.  Add  the  acid  in  the  same  manner  in  which  the  milk 
was  emptied  into  the  bottle. 

5.  Mix  the  acid  with  the  milk  by  giving  the  bottle  a 
slow  rotary  motion. 

6.  Allow  mixture  to  stand  a  few  minutes. 

7.  Shake  or  mix  again  and  then  place  the  bottle  in 
the  tester. 

8.  Run  tester  four  minutes  at  the 
proper  speed. 

9.  Add  moderately  hot  water  until 
contents  come  to  the  neck  of  the 
bottle. 

10.  Whirl  one  minute. 

1 1 .  Add  moderately  hot  water  un- 
til contents  of  the  bottle  reach  about 
the  8%  mark. 

12.  Whirl  one  minute. 
13'.     Read  test. 


How  to  Read  the  Test.    At  the  top 

of  the  fat  column  is  usually  quite  a 
pronounced  meniscus  as  shown  in  Fig. 
2)^.  A  less  pronounced  one  is  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  column.  The  fat 
should  be  read  from  the  extremes  of 
the  fat  column,  i  to  3,  not  from  2  to  4, 
when  its  temperature  is  about  140°  F. 
Too  high  a  temperature  gives  too  high 


4. 


■8 


Fig.   38.— Fat   column 
showingmeniscuses. 


142  DAIRY  FARMING 

a  reading,  because  of  the  expanded  condition  of  the  fat, 
while  too  low  a  temperature  gives  an  uncertain  reading. 
Precautions  in  Making  a  Test.     i.    Be  sure  you  have 
a  fair  sample. 

2.  The  temperature  of  the  milk  should  be  about  60 
or  70  degrees. 

3.  Always  mix  twice  after  acid  has  been  added. 

4.  Be  sure  your  tester  runs  at  the  right  speed. 

5.  Use  nothing  but  clean,  soft  water  in  filling  the 
bottles. 

6.  Be  sure  the  tester  does  not  jar. 

7.  'Be  sure  the  acid  is  of  the  right  strength. 

8.  Mix  as  soon  as  acid  is  added  to  milk. 

9.  Do  not  allow  the  bottles  to  become  cold  before 
reading  the  test. 

10.  Read  the  test  twice  to  insure  a  correct  reading. 
The  water  added  to  the  test  bottles  after  they  have  been 

whirled  should  be  clean  and  pure.  Water  containing 
much  lime  seriously  afifects  the  test.  Such  water  may 
be  used,  however,  when  first  treated  with  a  few  drops  of 
sulphuric  acid. 

As  stated  before,  skim-milk,  buttermilk,  and  cream  are 
tested  in  the  same  way  as  milk,  with  the  exception  that 
the  cream  sample  is  weighed,  not  measured. 

Testing  Cream.  Accurate  tests  of  cream  cannot  be 
secured  by  measuring  the  sample  into  the  bottle  as  is 
done  in  the  case  of  milk.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  weight  of  cream  varies  with  its  richness.  The  richer 
the  cream  the  less  it  weighs  per  unit  volume.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following  table  by  Farrington  and  Woll : 


ircent.  of  fat 

Specific  gravity 

in  cream. 

(weighed). 

10 

1.023 

IS 

1.012 

20 

1.008 

25 

1.002 

30 

.996 

35 

.980 

40 

.966 

45 

•950 

50 

.947 

MILK  AND  ITS'  PRODUCTS  143 

Weight  of  fresh  separator  cream  delivered  by  a  17.6  c.  c. 
pipette. 

Weight  of  cream 
in  grams. 

17.9 

17.7 

17-3 
17.2 
17.0 
16.4 
16.3 
16.2 
15.8 

With  cream  testing  below  30%  the  full  18  grams  may 
be  added  to  one  bottle  and  tested  in  the  usual  way.  Where 
the  cream  tests  above  30%  better  results  are  obtained  by 
using  only  half  the  full  sample  of  cream  (9  grams) 
and  adding  to  this  Q  grams  of  water.  To  this  mixture 
the  full  amount  of  acid  is  added.  Obviously  in  this  case 
the  test  must  be  multiplied  by  2  to  get  the  correct  reading. 
General  Pointers.     Black  fat  is  caused  by 

1.  Too  strong  acid. 

2.  Too  much  acid. 

3.  Too  high  a  temperature  of  the  acid  or  the  milk. 
.     4.     Not  mixing  soon  enough. 

5.     Dropping  the  acid  through  the  milk. 

Foam  on  top  of  fat  is  caused  by  hard  water,  and  can 
be  prevented  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  to 
the  water. 

Unclean  or  cloudy  fat  is  caused  by 

1.  Insufficient  mixing. 

2.  Too  low  speed  of  tester. 

3.  Too  low  temperature. 

4.  Too  weak  acid. 

Curd  particles  in  fat  are  caused  by 
I.     Too  weak  acid. 


144  DAIRY  FARMING 

2.  Not  enough  acid. 

3.  Too  low  temperature. 

Cleaning  Test  Bottles.  As  soon  as  the  test  is  read, 
the  bottles  are  emptied  by  shaking  them  up  and  down  so 
as  to  remove  the  white  sediment.  Next  wash  them  in 
hot  water  containing  some  alkali,  and  finally  rinse  them 
with  hot  water.  Occasionally  the  bottles  should  be  rinsed 
with  a  special  cleaning  solution,  which  is  made  by  dis- 
solving about  one  ounce  of  potassium  bichromate  in  one 
pint  of  sulphuric  acid.  A  small  brush  should  also  oc- 
casionally be  run  up  and  down  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

Making  and  Reading  Cream  Tests.  The  different 
steps  in  testing  cream  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  test- 
ing milk.  However,  as  already  stated,  the  cream  must 
be  weighed  and  tested  in  a  special  bottle.  Furthermore, 
special  precautions  must  be  used  in  reading  the  test. 

It  is  well  known  that  reading  the  extremes  of  the  fat 
column  gives  too  high  a  reading.  This  error  is  due  to 
the  meniscus  at  the  top  of  the  fat  column,  the  size  of 
which  varies  with  the  width  of  the  neck.  B*arrington 
and  WoU  recommend  reading  from  the  lowest  extremity 
of  the  fat  column  to  the  bottom  of  the  upper  meniscus. 
This  is  the  method  commonly  employed  in  reading  tests. 
Eckles  and  Wayman  recommend  removing  the  meniscus 
by  adding  a  small  quantity  of  amyl  alcohol  (colored  red) 
to  the  top  of  the  fat  column.  Farrington  suggests  add- 
ing a  few  drops  of  fat-saturated  alcohol  to  the  top  of 
the  fat  as  a  means  of  removing  the  meniscus.  Ordinary 
alcohol  has  a  solvent  action  on  butter  fat,  hence  the 
necessity  of  using   fat-saturated  alcohol. 

Hunziker"^  after  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  sub- 

♦BuUetin  145,  Indiana  Experiment  Station. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  145 

ject,  has  found  ''glymol"  best  suited  for  the  removal  of 
the  meniscus.  Glymol  is  known  commercially  as  white 
mineral  oil  and  is  used  for  typewriters,  sewing  machines, 
etc.  It  will  give  satisfactory  results  without  the  addition 
of  coloring  matter.  It  may  be  colored,  however,  by  plac- 
ing a  small  cheese  cloth  bag  containing  "alkanet  root" 
in  a  bottle  of  glymol  for  a  day  or  two.  One  ounce  of 
alkanet  root  will  color  one  quart  of  glymol. 

A  few  drops  of  the  glymol  are  sufficient,  and  should 
be  carefully  added  to  the  top  of  the  fat  column  before 
reading   the   test. 

To  get  accurate  readings  the  bottles  should  be  read 
while  the  temperature  of  the  fat  is  between  135°  and  140° 
F.  The  bottles  should  be  taken  from  the  tester  and  placed 
in  a  water  bath  having  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  and 
kept  there  several  minutes,  or  long  enough  to  cool  the 
fat  to  140°  F.  The  water  in  the  vessel  should  extend 
to  the  extreme  top  of  the  fat  in  the  bottles,  or  preferably 
a  little  above.  Accurate  readings  cannot  be  obtained  by 
reading  the  bottles  directly  from  the  tester;  the  first 
bottles  removed  have  too  high  a  temperature  while  those 
removed  last  have  too  low  a  temperature.  Where  hand 
testers  are  used,  the  bottles  are  usually  too  cold  for  sat- 
isfactory reading  and,  therefore,  must  be  heated  to  the 
proper  temperature. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

BACTERIA   AND    MILK    FERMENTATIONS. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  bacteria  and  their  action 
forms  the  basis  of  success  in  butter  making.  Indeed  the 
man  who  is  lacking  such  knowledge  is  making  butter 
in  the  dark;  his  is  chance  work.  Much  attention  will 
therefore  be  given  to  the  study  of  these  organisms  in 
this  work. 

I.      BACTERIA. 

The  term  bacteria  is  applied  to  the  smallest  of  living 
plants,  which  can  be  seen  only  under  the  highest  powers 
of  the  miscroscope.  Each  bacterium  is  made  up  of  a 
single  cell.  These  plants  are  so  small  that  it  would 
require  30,000  of  them  laid  side  by  side  to  measure  an 
inch.  Their  presence  is  almost  universal,  being  found 
in  the  air,  water,  and  soil;  in  cold,  hot,  and  temperate 
climates;  and  in  living  and  dead  as  well  as  inorganic 
matter. 

Bacteria  grow  with  marvelous  rapidity.  A  single  bac- 
terium is  capable  of  reproducing  itself  a  million  times 
in  twenty- four  hours.  They  reproduce  either  by  a  simple 
division  of  the  mother  cell,  thus  producing  two  new  cells, 
or  by  spore  formation  in  which  case  the  contents  of  the 
mother  cell  are  formed  into  a  round  mass  called  a  spore. 
These  spores  have  the  power  of  withstanding  unfavorable 
conditions  to  a  remarkable  extent,  some  being  able  to 
endure  a  temperature  of  212°  F.  for  several  hours. 

Most  bacteria  require  for  best  growth  a  moist,  warm, 
and  nutritious  medium  such  as  is  furnished  by  milk,  in 

146 


MILK   AXD   ITS  PRODUCTS  147 

which  an  exceedingly  varied  and  active  Hfe  is  possible. 
In  nature  and  in  many  of  the  arts  and  industries, 
bacteria  are  of  the  greatest  utility,  if  not  indispensable. 
They  play  a  most  important  part  in  the  disintegration  of 
vegetable  and  animal  matter,  resolving  compounds  into 
their  elemental  constituents  in  which  form  they  can  again 
be  built  up  and  used  as  plant  food.  In  the  art  of  butter 
and  cheese  making  bacteria  are  indispensable.  The  to- 
bacco,  tanning,  and  a  host  of  other  industries  cannot 
flourish  without  them. 

II.      MILK  I^EIRMENTATIONS. 

Definition.  In  defining  fermentation  processes,  Conn 
says  that,  "In  general,  they  are  progressive  chemical 
changes  taking  place  under  the  influence  of  certain 
organic  substances  which  are  present  in  very  small 
quantity  in  the  fermenting  mass." 

With  few  exceptions,  milk  fermentations  are  the  result 
of  the  growth  and  multiplication  of  various  classes  of 
bacteria.  The  souring  of  milk  illustrates  a  typical  fer- 
mentation, which  is  caused  by  the  action  of  lactic  acid 
bacteria  upon  the  milk  sugar  breaking  it  up  into  lactic 
acid.  Here  the  chemical  change  is  conversion  of  sugar 
into  lactic  acid. 

The  most  common  fermentations  of  milk  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

r  Lactic. 

Normal -j   Curdling  and  Digesting. 

[  Butyric. 


Milk  Fermentations    ^ 


'  Bitter. 
Slimy  or  Ropy. 
Abnormal...  -^  Gassy. 
I   Toxic. 
I  Chromogenic. 


148  DAIRY   FARMING 

NORMAI,    FERMENTATIONS. 

We  Speak  of  normal  fermentations  because  milk  always 
contains  certain  classes  of  bacteria  even  when  drawn  and 
kept  under  cleanly  conditions.  These  fermentations  will 
be  discussed  in  the  following  pages. 

I.       LACTIC    FERMENTATION. 

This  is  the  most  common  and  by  far  the  most  important 
fermentation  of  milk.  Indeed  it  is  indispensable  in  the 
manufacture  of  butter  of  the  highest  quality.  The  germ 
causing  this  fermentation  is  called  Lactici  Acidi.  It  is 
non-spore  bearing  and  has  its  optimum  growth  tempera- 
ture between  90°  and  98°  F.  At  40°  its  growth  ceases. 
Exposed  to  a  temperature  of  140°  for  fifteen  minutes 
it  is  killed. 

The  souring  of  milk  and  cream,  as  already  mentioned, 
is  due  to  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  upon  the 
milk  sugar  changing  it  into  lactic  acid.  Acid  is  therefore 
always  produced  at  the  expense  of  milk  sugar.  But  the 
sugar  is  never  all  converted  into  acid  because  the  pro- 
duction of  acid  is  limited.  When  the  acidity  reaches 
about  .9%  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  are  either  checked  or 
killed  and  the  production  of  acid  ceases.  Owing  to  the 
universal  presence  of  these  bacteria  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  secure  milk  free  from  them. 

Under  cleanly  conditions  the  lactic  acid  type  of  bacteria 
always  predominates  in  milk.  When,  however,  milk  is 
drawn  under  uncleanly  conditions  the  lactic  organisms 
may  be  outnumbered  by  other  species  of  bacteria  which 
give  rise  to  the  numerous  taints  often  met  with  in  milk. 

Contradictory  as  it  may  seem,  the  lactic  acid  bacteria 
are  alike  friend  and  foe  to  the  butter  maker.     Creamery 


t.k* 


'^.^ 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  149 

patrons  are  expected  to  have  milk  as  free  as  possible 
from  these  germs  so  that  it  may  arrive  at  the  creamery 
in  a  sweet  condition.  They  are  therefore  expected  to 
thoroughly  cool  and  care  for  it,  not  alone  to  suppress 
the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  but  also  that  of  the 
abnormal  species  that  might  have  gained  access  to  the 
milk. 

While  the  acid  bacteria  are  objectionable  in  milk,  in 
cream  made  into  butter  they  are  indispensable.  The 
highly  desirable  aroma  in  butter  is  the  result  of  the 
growth  of  these  organisms  in  the  process  of  cream 
ripening.  There  are  a  number  of  different  species  of 
bacteria  that  have  the  power  of  producing  lactic  acid. 

2.      CURDLING  AND  DIG£:STING   FERMENTATION. 

In  point  of  numbers  this  class  of  bacteria  ranks  perhaps 
next  to  the  lactic  acid  type.  Indeed  it  is  very  difficult  to 
obtain  milk  that  does  not  contain  them.  It  is  not  often, 
however,  that  their  presence  is  noticeable  owing  to  their 
inability  to  thrive  in  an  acid  medium. 

According  to  bacteriologists  most  of  these  bacteria 
secrete  two  enzymes,  one  of  which  has  the  power  of 
curdling  milk,  the  other  of  digesting  it.  The  former 
has  the  power  of  rennet,  the  latter  of  trypsin.  ''As  a 
rule,"  says  Russell,  "any  organism  that  possesses  the 
digestive  power,  first  causes  a  coagulation  of  the  casein 
in  a  manner  comparable  to  rennet." 

It  is  only  occasionally  when  the  lactic  acid  organisms 
are  in  a  great  minority,  or  when  for  some  reason  their 
action  has  been  suppressed,  that  this  class  of  bacteria 
manfests  itself  by  curdling  milk  while  sweet.  The  curd 
thus  formed  differs  from  that  produced  by  lactic  acid  in 
being  soft  and  slimy. 


ISO  DAIRY   FARMING 

Most  of  the  curdling  and  digesting  bacteria  are  spore 
bearing  and  can  thus  withstand  unfavorable  conditions 
better  than  the  lactic  acid  bacteria.  For  this  reason  milk- 
that  has  been  heated  sufficiently  to  kill  the  lactic  acid 
bacteria,  will  often  undergo  the  undesirable  changes 
attributable  to  the  digesting  and  curdling  organisms. 

3.      BUTYRIC  FEIRM^NTATION. 

It  was  mentioned  that  many  bacteria  have  the  power 
of  producing  lactic  acid  but  that  the  true  lactic  acid  fer- 
mentation is  probably  caused  by  a  single  species.  So  it 
is  with  the  butyric  acid  bacteria.  While  a  number  of 
different  organisms  are  known  to  produce  this  acid,  Conn 
is  of  the  opinion  that  the  common  butyric  fermentation 
of  milk  and  cream  is  due  to  a  single  species  belonging 
to  the  anaerobic  type. 

The  butyric  acid  produced  by  these  organisms  is  the 
chief  cause  of  rancid  flavors  in  cream  and  butter.  These 
bacteria  are  widely  distributed  in  nature,  being  particu- 
larly abundant  in  filth.  They  are  almost  universally 
present  in  milk,  from  which  they  are  hard  to  eradicate 
on  account  of  their  resistant  spores.  It  is  on  account 
of  these  spores  and  their  ability  to  grow  in  the  absence 
of  oxygen  that  the  butyric  fermentation  is  often  found 
in  ordinary  sterilized  milk  from  which  the  air  has  been 
excluded. 

The  influence  of  the  butyric  acid  bacteria  is  felt  mainly 
in  butter  and  in  overripened  cream.  The  latter  frequently 
possesses  a  rancid  odor  which  must  be  charged  to  these 
bacteria,  especially  since  it  is  known  that  overripened 
cream  possesses  conditions  favorable  for  their  develop- 
ment. Overripening  should,  therefore,  be  carefully 
guarded  against. 


MILK   AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  151 

The  butyric  fermentation  is  rarely  noticeable  during 
the  early  stage  of  cream  ripening  and  its  subsequent 
development  in  a  highly  acid  cream  is  explained  by 
Russell  as  being  ''probably  due,  not  so  much  to  the  pres- 
ence of  lactic  acid,  as  to  the  absence  of  dissolved  oxygen, 
v^hich  at  this  stage  has  been  used  up  by  the  lactic  acid 
organisms." 

Butter  that  is  apparently  good  in  quality  when  freshly 
made,  will  usually  turn  rancid  when  kept  at  ordinary 
temperatures  a  short  time.  The  quickness  with  which 
this  change  comes  is  dependent  largely  upon  the  amount 
of  acid  present  in  cream  at  the  time  of  churning.  Butter 
made  from  cream  in  which  the  maximum  amount  of  acid 
consistent  with  good  flavor  has  been  developed,  usually 
possesses  poor  keeping  quality.  This  seems  to  indi- 
cate that  at  least  part  of  the  rancidity  that  develops  in 
butter  after  it  is  made  is  due  to  the  butyric  acid  bacteria, 
while  light  and  air,  doubtless,  also  contribute  much  to 
this  end. 

ABNORMAL  FERMENTATIONS. 

No  trouble  needs  to  be  anticipated  from  these  fermenta- 
tions so  long  as  cleanliness  prevails  in  the  dairy.  The 
bacteria  that  belong  to  this  class  are  usually  associated 
with  filth,  and  dairies  that  become  infested  with  them 
show  a  lack  of  cleanliness  in  the  care  and  handling  of  the 
milk.  Since  milk  is  frequently  infected  with  one  or 
another  of  these  abnormal  fermentations  a  brief  discus- 
sion will  be  given  of  the  most  important. 

I.      BITTER    FERMENTATION. 

Bitter  milk  and  cream  are  quite  common  and  there  are 
several  ways  in  which  this  bitterness  is  imparted :  it  may 


152  DAIRY  FARMING 

be  due  to  strippers'  milk  and  to  certain  classes  of  feeds 
and  weeds,  but  most  frequently  to  bacteria.  This  class 
of  bacteria  has  not  yet  been  studied  very  thoroughly  but 
we  know  a  great  deal  about  it  in  a  practical  way.  In 
milk  and  cream  in  which  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid 
germs  has  been  suppressed  by  low  temperatures,  bitter- 
ness due  to  the  development  of  the  bitter  fermentation  is 
almost  certain  to  be  noticeable.  When  the  temperature 
is  such  as  to  cause  a  rapid  development  of  the  lactic 
fermentation,  the  bitter  fermentation  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
present.  It  is  quite  evident  from  this  that  the  bitter 
organisms  are  capable  of  growing  at  much  lower  tem- 
peratures than  the  lactic  and  that  so  long  as  the  latter 
are  rapidly  growing  the  bitter  fermentation  is  held  in 
check. 

This  teaches  us  that  it  is  not  safe  to  ripen  cream  below 
60°  F.  The  author  has  found  that  cream  quickly  ripened 
and  then  held  at  a  temperature  of  45°  for  twenty-four 
hours  would  show  no  tendency  toward  bitterness,  while 
the  same  cream  held  sweet  at  45°  for  twenty-four  hours 
and  then  ripened  would  develop  a  bitter  flavor.  This 
indicates  that  the  lactic  acid  is  unfavorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  bitter  fermentation. 

The  bitter  germs  produce  spores  capable  of  resisting 
the  boiling  temperature.  This  accounts  for  the  bitter 
taste  that  often  develops  in  boiled  milk. 

2.      SI.IMY   OR   ROPY    FERMENTATION. 

This  is  not  a  common  fermentation  and  rarel> 
causes  trouble  where  cleanliness  is  practiced  in  the  dairy. 
The  bacteria  that  produce  it  are  usually  found  in  impure 
water,  dust,  and  dung.     These  germs  are  antagonistic  to 


MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  153 

the  lactic  organisms  and  for  this  reason  milk  infected 
v/ith  them  sours  with  great  difficulty. 

The  action  of  this  class  of  bacteria  is  to  increase  the 
viscosity  of  milk,  which  in  mild  cases  simply  assumes  a 
slimy  appearance.  In  extreme  cases,  however,  the  milk 
develops  into  a  ropy  consistency,  permitting  it  to  be 
strung  out  in  threads  several  feet  long. 

Slimy  or  ropy  milk  cannot  be  creamed  and  is  therefore 
worthless  in  the  manufacture  of  butter.  Such  milk  should 
not  be  confused  with  gargety  milk  which  is  stringy  when 
drawn  from  the  cow.  The  bacteria  belonging  to  this  class 
are  easily  destroyed  as  they  do  not  form  spores. 

3.  GASSY    FERMENTATION. 

This  is  an  exceedingly  troublesome  fermentation  in 
cheese  making  and  is  also  the  cause  of  much  poor  flavored 
butter.  The  gas  germs  are  very  abundant  during  the 
warm  summer  months  but  are  scarcely  noticeable  in 
winter.  Like  the  bitter  germs,  they  are  antagonistic  to 
the'  lactic  acid  bacteria  and  do  not  grow  during  the  rapid 
development  of  the  latter.  They  are  found  most  abun- 
dantly in  the  barn,  particularly  in  dung. 

4.  TOXIC   FERMENTATIONS. 

Toxic  or  poisonous  products  are  occasionally  developed 
in  milk  as  a  result  of  bacterial  activity.  They  are  most 
commonly  found  in  milk  that  has  been  kept  for  some 
time  at  low  temperature. 

5.      CHROMOGENIC   FERMENTATIONS. 

Bacteria  belonging  to  this  class  have  the  power  of 
imparting  to  milk  various  colors.     The  most  common  of 


154  DAIRY   FARMING 

these  is  blue.  It  is,  however,  not  often  met  with  in  dairy 
practice  since  the  color  usually  does  not  appear  until  the 
milk  is  several  days  old.  The  specific  organism  that 
causes  blue  milk  has  been  known  for  more  than  half  a 
century  and  is  called  cyanogenous.  Another  color  that 
rarely  turns  up  in  dairy  practice  is  produced  by  a  germ 
known  as  prodigiosis,  causing  milk  to  turn  red.  Other 
colors  are  produced  such  as  yellow,  green,  and  black,  but 
these  are  of  very  rare  occurrence. 


°o°gb  °-oo  oo<^oo  ^.o  ?'rp:(yf% 


Microscopic  appearance  of  pure  and  impure  milk.  A,  Pure  milk  ;  B,  after 
standing  in  a  wash  room  for  a  few  hours  in  a  dirty  dish,  showing,  besides 
the  fat  globules,  many  forms  of  bacteria.— Moore. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

SANITARY    MII.K    PRODUCTION. 

Sanitary  Milk  Defined.  Sanitary  milk  is  milk  from 
healthy  cows,  produced  and  handled  under  conditions  in 
which  contamination  from  filth,  bad  odors,  and  bacteria, 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Importance  of  Sanitary  Milk.  The  production  of 
clean  milk  is  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  that  con- 
fronts the  American  dairyman  at  the  present  time.  Fur- 
ther improvement  in  the  quality  of  butter  and  cheese  must 
largely  be  sought  in  the  use  of  cleaner  milk.  With  the 
better  appreciation  by  the  public  of  the  great  nutritive 
value  of  milk,  there  opens  an  unlimited  market  for  it  for 
consumption  in  the  raw  form.  Already  we  find  that  milk 
produced  under  the  best  sanitary  conditions  sells  for  prac- 
tically double  that  obtained  under  ordinary,  more  or  less, 
slip-shod  conditions.  So  great  is  the  clamor  for  cleaner 
milk  that  any  extra  efforts  expended  in  producing  it  are 
certain  to  be  richly  compensated. 

The  Necessary  Conditions  for  the  production  of  sani- 
tary milk  are  as  follows:  (i)  Healthy  cows;  (2)  sani- 
tary barn;  (3)  clean  barn  yard;  (4)  clean  cows;  (5) 
clean  milkers;  (6)  clean  milk  vessels;  (7)  clean,  whole- 
some feed;  (8)  pure  water;  (9)  clean  strainers;  (10) 
dust-free  stable  air;  (11)  clean  bedding;  (12)  milking 
with  dry  hands;  (13)  thorough  cooling  of  milk  after 
milking;  (14)  sanitary  milk  room. 

Healthy  Cows.  The  health  of  the  cow  is  of  prime  im- 
portance in  the  production  of  sanitary  milk.     All  milk 

155 


156  DAIRY   FARMING 

from  cows  affected  with  contagious  diseases  should  be 
rigidly  excluded  from  the  dairy.  Aside  from  the  general 
unfitness  of  such  milk  there  is  danger  of  the  disease  pro- 
ducing organisms  getting  into  the  milk.  It  has  been 
found,  for  example,  that  cows  whose  udders  are  affected 
with  tuberculosis,  yield  milk  containing  these  organisms. 
The  prevalence  of  this  disease  among  cows  at  present 
makes  it  imperative  to  determine  definitely  whether  or 
not  cows  are  affected  with  the  disease,  by  the  application 
of  the  tuberculin  test. 

Any  feverish  condition  of  the  cow  tends  to  impart  a 
feverish  odor  to  the  milk,  which  should  therefore  not  be 
used.  Especially  important  is  it  that  milk  from  diseased 
udders,  no  matter  what  the  character  of  the  disease,  be 
discarded. 

Sanitary  Barn.  Light,  ventilation,  and  ease  of  clean- 
ing are  essential  to  a  sanitary  dairy  barn.  The  disinfect- 
ant action  of  an  abundance  of  sunlight,  secured  by  pro- 
viding a  large  number  of  windows,  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. 

Of  equal  importance  is  a  clean,  pure  atmosphere,  secur- 
ed by  a  continuous  ventilating  system.  The  fact  that 
odors  of  any  description  are  absorbed  by  milk  with  great 
avidity,  sufficiently  emphasises  the  great  need  of  pure  air. 

To  permit  of  easy  cleaning,  the  barn  floors  and  gutters 
should  be  built  of  concrete.  They  should  be  scrubbed 
daily,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  walls  and 
ceiling  free  from  dust  and  cobwebs.  The  feed  boxes  must 
also  be  cleaned  after  each  feed. 

The  stalls  should  be  of  the  simplest  construction,  to 
afford  as  little  chance  for  lodgement  of  dust  as  possible. 
Furthermore,  they  should  so  fit  the  cows  as  to  cause  the 
latter  to  stand  with  their  hind  feet  on  the  edg-e  of  the  eut- 


MILK   AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  157 

ter,  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance  in  keeping  cows 
clean. 

The  walls  and  ceiling  should  be  as  smooth  as  possible. 
Moreover,  they  should  be  frequently  disinfected  by  means 
of  a  coat  of  whitewash.  The  latter  gives  the  barn  a 
striking  sanitary  appearance. 

Clean  Barn  Yard.  A  clean,  well  drained  barn  yard  is 
an  essential  factor  in  the  production  of  sanitary  milk. 
Where  cows  are  obliged  to  w^ade  in  mire  and  filth,  it  is 
easy  to  foretell  what  the  quality  of  the  milk  will  be.  To 
secure  a  good  barn  yard  it  must  be  covered  with  gravel 
or  cinders,  and  should  slope  away  from  the  barn.  If  the 
manure  is  not  taken  directly  from  the  stable  to  the  fields, 
it  should  be  placed  where  the  cows  cannot  have  access 
to  it. 

Clean  Cows.  Where  the  barn  and  barn-yard  are  sani- 
tary, cows  may  be  expected  to  be  reasonably  clean.  Yet 
cows  that  are  apparently  clean,  may  still  be  the  means  of 
infecting  milk  to  no  small  degree.  When  we  consider 
that  every  dust  particle  and  every  hair  that  drops  into 
the  milk  may  add  hundreds,  thousands,  or  even  millions 
of  bacteria  to  it,  we  realize  the  importance  of  taking  every 
precaution  to  guard  against  contamination  from  this 
source. 

To  keep  cows  as  free  as  possible  from  loose  hair  and 
dust  particles  they  should  be  carded  and  brushed  regu- 
larly once  a  day.  This  should  be  done  after  milking  to 
avoid  dust.  Five  to  ten  minutes  before  the  cow  is  milked 
her  udder  and  flanks  should  be  gently  washed  wdth  clean, 
tepid  water,  by  using  a  clean  sponge  or  cloth.  This  will 
allow  suflicient  time  for  any  adhering  drops  of  water  to 
drip  off,  at  the  same  time  it  will  keep  the  udder  and  flanks 
sufficiently  moist  to  prevent  dislodgment  of  dust  particles 


158  DAIRY   FARMING 

and  hairs  at  milking  time.  This  practically  means  that 
the  milker  must  always  have  one  or  two  cows  washed 
ahead.  He  should  be  careful  to  wash  his  hands  in  clean 
water  after  each  washing. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  cow  is  the  greatest 
source  of  milk  contamination.  The  rubbing  of  the  milker 
against  her  and  the  shaking  of  the  udder  will  dislodge 
numerous  dust  particles  and  hairs  unless  the  foregoing 
instructions  are  rigidly  followed. 

Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  cow's  switch, 
which  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.  The  usual 
switching  during  milking  is  no  small  matter  in  the  con- 
tamination of  milk  when  the  switch  is  not  clean. 

Clean  Milkers.  Clothes  which  have  been  worn  in  the 
fields  are  not  suitable  for  milking  purposes.  Every  milker 
should  be  provided  with  a  clean,  white  milking  suit,  con- 
sisting of  cap,  jacket  and  trousers.  Such  clothes  can  be 
bought  ready  made  for  one  dollar;  and,  if  frequently 
laundered,   will   materially   aid   in    securing   clean   milk. 


Fig.  42.    Unflushed  seam.  Fig.  43.    Flushed  seam. 

Milkers  should  also  wash  and  dry  their  hands  before 
milking,  and,  above  all,  should  keep  them  dry  during 
milking. 

Clean  Vessels.     All  utensils  used  in  the  handline  of 


MILK   AND    ITS   PRODUCTS  159 

milk  should  be  made  of  good  tin,  with  as  few  seams  as 
possible.  Wherever  seams  occur,  they  should  be  flushed 
with  solder.  Unflushed  seams  are  difficult  to  clean,  and, 
as  a  rule,  afford  good  breeding  places  for  bacteria.  Fig. 
42  illustrates  the  character  of  the  unflushed  seam ;  Fig.  43 
shows  a  flushed  seam,  which  fully  illustrates  its  value. 

Fig.  44  illustrates  a  modern  sanitary  milk  pail.  The 
value  of  a  partially  closed  pail  is  evident  from  the  re- 
duced opening,  which  serves  to  keep  out  many  of  the 
micro-organisms  that  otherwise  drop  into  the  pail  during 


Fig.  44.    Sanitary  Milk  Pail. 

milking.  While  such  a  pail  is  somewhat  more  difficult 
to  clean  than  the  ordinary  open  pail,  it  is  believed  that 
the  reduced  contamination  during  milking  far  outweighs 
this  disadvantage. 

All  utensils  used  in  the  handling  of  milk  should  be  as 
nearly  sterile  as  possible.  A  very  desirable  method  of 
cleaning  them  is  as  follows : 

First,  rinse  with  warm  or  cold  water.     Second,  scrub 


160  DAIRY  FARMING 

with  moderately  hot  water  containing  some  sal  soda. 
The  washing  should  be  done  with  brushes  rather  than 
cloth  because  the  bristles  enter  into  any  crevices  present 
which  the  cloth  cannot  possibly  reach.  Furthermore,  it 
is  very  difficult  to  keep  the  cloth  clean.  Third,  scald 
thoroughly  with  steam  or  hot  water,  after  rinsing  out  the 
water  in  which  the  sal  soda  was  used.  After  scalding, 
the  utensils  should  be  inverted  on  the  shelves  without 
wiping  and  allowed  to  remain  in  this  place  until  ready 
to  use.  This  will  leave  the  vessels  in  a  practically  sterile 
condition.  Fourth,  if  it  is  possible  to  turn  the  inside  of 
the  vessels  to  the  sun,  in  a  place  where  there  is  no  dust, 
then  it  is  desirable  to  expose  the  utensils  during  the  day 
to  the  strong  germicidal  action  of  the  direct  sun's  rays. 

Clean,  Wholesome  Feed.  Highly  fermented  and 
aromated  feeds,  like  sour  brewers  grains  and  leeks  should 
be  rigidly  withheld  from  dairy  cows  when  anything  like 
good  flavored  milk  is  sought.  So  readily  does  milk 
absorb  the  odors  of  feeds  through  the  system  of  the  ani- 
mal, that  even  good  corn  silage,  when  fed  just  previous 
to  milking,  will  leave  its  odor  in  the  milk.  When  fed 
after  milking,  however,  no  objection  whatever  can  be 
raised  against  corn  silage  because  not  a  trace  of  its  odors 
is  then  found  in  the  milk.  Aromatic  feeds  of  any  kind 
should  always  be  fed  after  milking. 

Pure  Water.  Since  feeds  are  known  to  transmit  their 
odors  to  the  milk  through  the  cow,  it  is  reasonable  to  ex- 
pect water  to  do  the  same.  Cows  should,  therefore,  never 
be  permitted  to  drink  anything  but  pure,  clean-flavored 
water.  The  need  of  pure  water  is  further  evident  from 
the  fact  that  it  enters  so  largely  into  the  composition  of 
milk. 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  161 

The  water  of  ponds  and  stagnant  streams  is  especially 
dangerous.  Not  only  is  such  water  injurious  to  the  health 
of  cows,  but  in  wading  into  it,  they  become  contaminated 
with  numerous  undesirable  bacteria,  some  of  which  may 
later  find  their  way  into  the  milk. 

Strainers  and  Straining.  Milk  should  be  drawn  so 
clean  as  to  make  it  almost  unnecessary  to  strain  it.  This 
operation  is  frequently  done  under  the  delusion  that  so 
long  as  it  removes  all  visible  dirt  the  milk  has  been 
entirely  purified.  The  real  harm,  however,  that  comes 
from  hairs  and  dust  particles  dropping  into  the  milk  is 
not  so  much  in  the  hairs  and  dust  particles  themselves 
as  in  the  millions  of  bacteria  which  they  carry  with  them. 
These  bacteria  are  so  small  that  no  method  of  straining 
will  remove  them.  Straining  can  not  even  remove  all 
of  the  dirt,  because  some  of  it  will  go  in  solution. 

A  good  strainer  consists  of  two  thicknesses  of  cheese 
cloth  with  a  layer  of  absorbent  cotton  between.  The 
strainer  is  to  be  placed  on  the  can  or  vat  into  which  the 
milk  is  to  be  strained  and  not  on  the  milk  pail.  While 
a  strainer  like  the  above  placed  upon  the  milk  pail,  reduces 
the  bacterial  content  slightly  in  the  hands  of  careful  milk- 
ers, it  is  believed  that  the  slight  advantage  gained  would 
be  more  than  ofif-set  by  greater  carelessness  in  milking; 
especially  might  this  be  true  with  ignorant  milkers  who 
are  apt  to  think  that  the  strainer  will  make  up  for  any 
carelessness  on  their  part.  A  cheese  cloth  strainer  on 
the  milk  pail  is  worse  than  useless  with  any  kind  of 
milker. 

New  sterilized  cotton  must  be  used  at  each  milking 
and  the  cloths  must  be  thoroughly  washed  and  sterilized. 
Like  the  cotton,  it  is  best  to  use  the  cloth  but  once. 

Dust=Free  Air.    Great  precaution  should  be  taken  not 


152  DAIRY  FARMING 

to  create  any  dust  in  the  stable  about  milking  time,  for 
this  is  certain  to  find  its  way  into  the  milk.  Cows  should, 
therefore,  never  be  bedded  or  receive  any  dusty  feed  just 
before  or  during  milking. 

Dry  roughage,  such  as  hay  and  corn  fodder,  always 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  dust,  and  when  fed 
before  or  during  milking  may  so  charge  the  air  with  dust 
as  to  make  clean  milk  an  impossibility. 

Moistening  the  floor  and  walls  with  clean  water  pre- 
vious to  milking  materially  minimizes  the  danger  of  get- 
ting dust  into  the  milk.  A  mistake  not  infrequently  made 
even  in  the  better  class  of  dairies  is  to  card  and  brush  the 
cows  just  before  milking.  While  this  results  in  cleaner 
cows,  the  advantage  thus  gained  is  far  more  than  off- 
set by  the  dirtier  air,  which,  as  will  be  shown  later, 
materially  increases  the  germ  content  of  the  milk.  The 
carding  and  brushing  should  be  done  at  least  thirty  min- 
utes before  the  milking  commences. 

Clean  Bedding.  Clean  shavings  and  clean  cut  straw 
should  preferably  be  used  for  bedding.  Cows  stepping 
and  lying  on  dirty  bedding  will  soil  themselves  and  create 
a  dusty  barn  air. 

Milking  With  Dry  Hands.  A  prolific  source  of 
milk  contamination  is  the  milking  with  wet  hands.  \Miere 
the  milker  wets  his  hands  with  milk,  some  of  it  is  bound 
to  drip  into  the  pail,  carrying  with  it  thousands  or  mil- 
lions of  bacteria,  depending  upon  the  degree  of  cleanliness 
of  the  milker's  hands  and  the  cow's  udder.  There  is  no 
excuse  for  the  filthy  practice  of  wet  milkine,  since  it 
is  just  as  easy  to  milk  with  dry  hands. 

Fore=MiIk.  Where  the  purest  milk  is  sought,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  reject  the  first  stream  or  two  from  each  teat, 
as  this  contains  manv  thousands  of  bacteria.     The  reason 


MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS  163 

for  this  rich  development  of  germs  is  found  in  the  favor- 
able conditions  provided  by  the  milk  in  the  milk-ducts  of 
the  teats,  to  which  the  bacteria  find  ready  access. 

Flies.  Flies  not  only  constitute  a  prolific  but  also  a 
dangerous  source  of  milk  contamination.  These  pests 
visit  places  of  the  worst  description  and  their  presence 
in  a  dairy  suggests  a  disregard  for  cleanliness.  Of  414 
flies  examined  by  the  'Bacteriologist  of  the  Connecticut 
Station,  the  average  number  of  bacteria  carried  per  fly 
was  one  and  a  quarter  millions.  Flies  should  be  rigidly 
excluded  from  all  places  where  they  are  apt  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  milk. 

Experimental  Data.  To  show  to  what  extent  the 
bacterial  content  of  milk  may  be  reduced  by  adopting 
the  precautions  suggested  in  the  foregoing  pages,  a  few 
experimental  data  are  herewith  presented. 

In  Bulletin  No.  42  of  the  Storrs  (Conn.)  Experiment 
Station,  Stocking  reports  the  following : 

1.  When  the  cows  were  milked  before  feeding  the 
number  of  bacteria  per  c.  c.  was  1,233;  when  milked  im- 
mediately after  feeding,  the  number  of  bacteria  was  3,656, 
or  three  times  as  many. 

2.  When  the  udder  and  flanks  of  the  cows  were  wiped 
with  a  damp  cloth,  the  number  of  bacteria  per  c.  c.  was 
716;  when  not  wiped  the  number  was  7,058,  or  ten  times 
as  great. 

3.  When  the  cows  were  not  brushed  just  before  milk- 
ing the  number  of  bacteria  per  c.  c.  was  1,207;  when 
brushed  just  before  milking,  the  number  was  2,286,  or 
nearly  twice  as  great. 

4.  When  students  who  had  studied  the  production  of 
clean  milk  did  the  milking,  the  number  of  bacteria  per 
c.  c.  was  914;  when  the  milking  was  done  by  regular 


164 


DAIRY  FARMING 


unskilled  milkers  the  number  of  bacteria  was  2,846,  or 
three  times  as  great. 

Wiping  or  washing  udders  before  milking  not  only 
very  materially  reduces  the  bacterial  content  of  the  milk, 
but  also  lessens  the  amount  of  dirt  to  a  very  great  extent. 
Frazer  has  shown  that  ''the  average  weight  of  dirt  which 
falls  from  muddy  udders  during  milking  is  ninety  times 
as  great  as  that  which  falls  from  the  same  udder  after 
washing,  and  when  the  udder  is  slightly  soiled  it  is 
eighteen  times  as  great." 


I'i>.  15 -Clean  Milking.     (From  Da.  Div.,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  A.) 


CHAPTER  XXT. 

FARM  BUTTER-MAKING. 

CREAMING. 

Cause.  Creaming  is  due  to  the  difference  in  the  speci- 
fic gravity  of  the  fat  and  the  milk  serum.  The  fat  being 
Hght  and  insoluble  rises,  carrying  with  it  some  of  the 
other  constituents  of  the  milk.  The  result  is  a  layer  of 
cream  at  the  surface. 

Processes  of  Creaming.  The  processes  by  which  milk 
is  creamed  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes :  ( i ) 
That  in  which  milk  is  placed  in  shallow  pans  or  long 
narrow  cans  and  allowed  to  set  for  about  twenty-four 
hours,  a  process  known  as  natural  or  gravity  creaming; 
(2)  that  in  which  gravity  is  aided  by  subjecting  the  milk 
to  centrifugal  force,  a  process  known  as  centrifugal 
creaming.  The  centrifugal  force  has  the  effect  of  increas- 
ing the  force  of  gravity  many  thousands  of  times,  thus 
causing  an  almost  instantaneous  creaming.  This  force 
is  generated  in  the  cream  separator. 

ShaIlow=Pan  Method.  The  best  results  with  this 
method  are  secured  by  straining  the  milk  directly  after 
milking  into  tin  pans  about  twelve  inches  in  diameter 
and  t\yo  to  four  inches  deep.  It  is  then  allowed  to  remain 
undisturbed  at  room  temperature  (60°  to  65°  F.)  for 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours,  after  which  the  cream  is 
removed  either  with  a  nearly  .flat,  perforated  skimmer,  or 
by  allowing  it  to  glide  over  the  edge  of  the  pan  after  it 
has  been  carefully  loosened  along  the  sides.  The  aver- 
age loss  of  fat  in  the  skim  milk  by  this  method  is  0.7%. 

165 


166 


DAIRY   FARMING 


Deep=CoId=Setting  Method.  The  best  results  with 
this  method  are  secured  by  using  a  can  Hke  the  Cooky 
ilkistrated  in  Fig.  47.  This  can  is  provided  with  a  cover 
which  allows  it  to  be  submerged  in 
water.  It  also  has  a  spout  at  the 
bottom  by  which  the  skim  milk  is 
gently  removed,  thus  preventing  the 
partial  mixing  of  cream  and  skim 
milk  incident  to  skimming  with  a 
conical  dipper. 

The  milk  is  put  into  the  cans  di- 
rectly after  milking  and  cooled  to 
as  low  a  temperature  as  possible. 
To  secure  the  best  results  with  this 
method  the  water  should  be  iced. 
Where  this  is  done  the  skim  milk 
will  show  only  about  0.2%  fat.  It 
it  desirable  to  allow  the  milk  to  set 
twenty-four  hours  before  skimming,  though  usually  the 
creaming  is  quite  complete  at  the  end  of  twelve  or  fifteen 
hours. 

Dilution  or  Aquatic  Separators.  One  of  the  most 
unsatisfactory  methods  of  creaming  is  the  addition  of 
water  to  the  milk.  The  creaming  by  this  method  is  done 
in  variously  constructed  tin  cans,  which  the  manufacturers 
usually  sell  under  the  name  of  dilution  or  aquatic  sepa- 
rators. Those  uninformed  about  the  genuine  centrifugal 
separators  are  often  lead  to  believe  that  they  are  buying 
real  separators  at  a  low  cost  when  they  are  investing  five, 
ten  or  fifteen  dollars  in  one  of  these  tin  cans,  which  are 
no  more  entitled  to  the  term  separator  than  are  the  com- 
mon shallow  pans.  The  average  loss  of  fat  with  this 
system  of  creaming  is  about   i^%. 


Fig.  47.-  Cooley  Can. 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  167 

Centrifugal  Method  (Hand  Separator).  Dairies  hav- 
ing four  or  more  cows  should  cream  their  milk  by  the  cen- 
trifugal method,  the  hand  separator.  The  saving  of  but- 
ter fat  with  this  method  soon  pays  for  the  cost  of  a  sep- 
arator. Moreover  it  has  the  additional  advantages  over 
the  gravity  methods  of  creaming  in  providing  fresh,  sweet 
skim  milk  for  feeding  purposes,  and  yielding  cream  of 
any  desired  richness. 

Efficiency  of  Creaming  With  a  Separator.  Under 
favorable  conditions  a  separator  should  not  leave  more 
than  .05%  fat  in  the  skim  milk  by  the  Babcock  test 
There  are  a  num.ber  of  conditions  that  affect  the  efficiency 
of  skimmmg  and  these  must  be  duly  considered  in  making 
a  separator  test.  The  following  are  some  of  these  con- 
ditions : 

A.  Speed  of  bowl. 

B.  Steadiness  of  motion. 

C.  Temperature  of  milk. 

D.  Manner  of  heating  milk. 

E.  Amount  of  milk  skimmed  per  hout. 
F. .  Acidity  of  milk. 

G.     Viscosity  of  milk. 
H.     Richness  of  cream. 
I.      Stage  of  lactation.     (Stripper's  milk.) 

A.  The  greater  the  speed  the  more  efficient  the  cream- 
ing, other  conditions  the  same.  It  is  important  to  see  that 
the  separator  runs  at  full  speed  during  the  separating 
process. 

B.  A  separator  should  run  as  smoothly  as  a  top.  The 
slightest  trembling  will  increase  the  loss  of  fat  in  the 
skim  milk.  Trembling  of  bowl  may  be  caused  by  any  of 
the  following  conditions:     (i)  loose  bearings,  (2)  sepa- 


168  DAIRY  FARMING  ^ 

rator  out  of  plumb,  (3)  dirty  oil  or  dirty  bearings.  (4) 
unstable  foundation,  or  (5)  unbalanced  bowl. 

C.  The  best  skimming  is  not  possible  with  any  sepa- 
rator when  the  temperature  falls  below  60°  F.  A  tem- 
perature of  85°  to  98°  F.  is  the  most  satisfactory  for 
ordinary  skimming.  Under  some  conditions  the  cleanest 
skimming  is  obtained  at  temperatures  above  100°  F.  The 
reason  milk  separates  better  at  the  higher  temperatures  is 
that  the  viscosity  is  reduced. 

D.  Sudden  heating  tends  to  increase  the  loss  of  fat 
in  skim-milk.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  fat  heats 
more  slowly  than  the  milk  serum,  which  diminishes  the 
difference  between  their  densities.  When,  for  example, 
milk  is  suddenly  heated  from  near  the  freezing  tempera- 
ture to  85°  F.  by  applying  live  steam,  the  loss  of  fat  in 
the  skim-milk  may  be  four  times  as  great  as  it  is  under 
favorable  conditions. 

E.  Unduly  crowding  a  separator  increases  the  loss 
of  fat  in  the  skim-milk.  On  the  other  hand,  a  marked 
underfeeding  is  apt  to  lead  to  the  same  result. 

F.  The  higher  the  acidity  of  milk  the  poorer  the 
creaming.  With  sour  milk  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skim- 
milk  becomes  very  great. 

G.  Sometimes  large  numbers  of  undesirable  (slimy) 
bacteria  find  entrance  into  milk  and  materially  increase 
its  viscosity.  This  results  in  very  unsatisfactory  creaming. 
Low  temperatures  also  increase  the  viscosity  of  milk 
which  accounts  for  the  poor  skimming  at  these  tempera- 
tures. 

H.  Alost  of  the  standard  makes  of  separators  will  do 
satisfactory  work  when  delivering  cream  of  a  richness  of 
co%.    A  richer  cream  is  liable  to  result  in  a  richer  skim- 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  169 

milk.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  in  rich  cream  the  skim- 
milk  is  taken  close  to  the  cream  line  where  the  skim-milk 
is  richest. 

I.  Owing  to  the  very  small  size  of  the  fat  globules  in 
stripper's  milk,  such  milk  is  more  difficult  to  cream  than 
that  produced  in  the  early  period  of  lactation. 

Regulating  Richness  of  Cream.  The  richness  of 
cream  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  cream  screw  in  the  sepa- 
rator bowl.  When  a  rich  cream  is  desired  the  screw  is 
turned  toward  the  center  of  the  bowl,  and  for  a  thin  cream 
it  is  turned  away  from  the  center. 

Advantages  of  Rich  Cream.  To  separate  a  rich 
cream  at  the  farm  results  in  mutual  benefit  to  pro- 
ducer and  manufacturer.  The  main  advantages  are  as  fol- 
lows :  (i)  Less  bulk  to  handle;  (2)  less  cream  to  cool; 
(3)  less  transportation  charges;  (4)  more  skim-milk  for 
the  farmer;  (5)  better  keeping  quality;  (6)  allows  more 
starter  to  be  added;  (7)  gives  better  results  in  churn- 
ing, and  (8)  makes  pasteurization  easier,  especially  with 
sour  cream. 

Best  Time  to  Separate  Milk.  The  best  results  with 
a  separator  are  obtained  by  running  the  milk  through 
the  machine  immediately  after  milking. 

Saving  of  Butter  Fat  with  a  Separator.  That  the 
owner  of  four  good  cows  can  afford  to  invest  $50.00  in  a 
small  cream  separator  is  shown  by  the  following:  Four 
good  cows  will  yield  not  less  than  24.000  pounds  of 
milk  a  year.  By  the  common  shallow  pan  method  of 
creaming,  the  loss  of  butter  fat  will  average  0.7  pound 
for  every  100  pounds  of  milk.  With  the  centrifugal  sepa- 
rator the  loss  of  fat  will  not  average  over  0.05  pound, 
hence  there  will  be  effected  a  saving  of  0.65  pound  of 


170  DAIRY  FARMING 

butter  fat  in  each  lOO  pounds  of  milk  by  the  use  of  the 
separator.  At  this  rate,  the  total  saving  of  butter  fat  an- 
nually on  the  24,000  pounds  of  milk  will  be  156  pounds. 
Since  each  pound  of  butter  fat  will  yield  approximateh 
I  1-6  pounds  of  butter,  183  pounds  of  butter  will  be  saved 
by  the  process,  which,  at  25  cents  per  pound,  amounts  to 
$45.75.  This  saving  in  butter  fat  alone  will  almost  pay 
for  the  separator  in  one  year. 

Fastening  a  Separator.  To  secure  steady  motion, 
the  separator  must  be  fastened  to  a  solid  foundation. 
There  is  nothing  better  in  this  respect  than  a  concrete 
floor,  with  which  every  dairy  should  be  provided. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  fastening  separators  to  con- 
crete floors  is  the  use  of  expansion  bolts. 

These  consist  of  lag  screws  with  tapering  points  pro- 
vided with  malleable  shields,  having  threads  on  their  in- 
ner sides  to  fit  the  threads  of  the  lag  screws  and  pro- 
jections on  their  outer  sides  to  catch  and  hold  in  holes 
made  in  the  concrete.  The  shields  expand  as  the  lag 
screw  is  screwed  in. 

CREAM   RIPENING. 

Cream  ripening  is  a  process  of  fermentation  in  which' 
the  lactic  acid  organisms  play  the  chief  role.  In  every-day 
language,  cream  ripening  means  the  souring  of  the  cream. 
So  important  is  this  process  that  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  butter  maker  is  largely  determined  by  his  ability 
to  exercise  the  proper  control  over  it.  In  common  practice 
the  time  consumed  in  the  ripening  of  cream  varies  from 
twelve  to  twenty- four  hours. 

Object.  The  ripening  of  cream  has  for  its  prime  ob- 
ject the  development  of  flavor  and  aroma  in  butter,  two 
qualities  usually  expressed  by  the  word  flavor.     In  addi- 


MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  171 

tion  to  this,  cream  ripening  has  several  minor  purposes, 
namely:  (i)  renders  cream  more  easily  churnable;  (2) 
obviates  difficulties  from  frothing  or  foaming  in  churn- 
ing" 5  (3)  permits  a  higher  churning  temperature;  (4) 
increases  the  keeping  quality  of  butter. 

Flavor.  This,  so  far  as  known  at  the  present  time, 
is  the  result  of  the  development  of  the  lactic  fermentation. 
If  other  fermentations  aid  in  the  production  of  this  im- 
portant quality  of  butter,  they  must  be  looked  upon  as 
secondary.  In  practice  the  degree  or  intensity  of  flavor 
is  easily  controlled  by  governing  the  formation  of  lactic 
acid.  That  is,  the  flavor  develops  gradually  with  the  in- 
crease in  the  acidity  of  the  cream.  Sweet  cream  butter, 
for  example,  is  almost  entirely  devoid  of  flavor,  while 
cream  with  an  average  richness  possesses  the  maximum 
amount  of  good  flavor  possible  when  the  acidity  has 
reached  .6%. 

Churnability.  Practical  experience  shows  that  sour 
cream  is  more  easily  churnable  than  sweet  cream.  This 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  development  of  acid  in 
cream  tends  to  diminish  its  viscosity.  The  concussion  prO' 
duced  in  churning  causes  the  little  microscopic  fat  glob- 
ules to  flow  together  and  coalesce,  ultimately  forming  the 
small  granules  of  butter  visible  in  the  churn.  A  high 
viscosity  impedes  the  movement  of  these  globules.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  anything  that  reduces  the  viscosity 
of  cream,  will  facilitate  the  churning. 

As  a  rule,  too,  the  greater  the  churnability  of  cream  the 
smaller  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  buttermilk. 

Frothing.  Experience  shows  that  ripened  cream  is 
less  subject  to  frothing  or  foaming  than  unripened.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  reduced  viscosity  of  ripened  cream 
and  the  consequent  greater  churnability  of  same. 


172  DAIRY   FARMING 

Temperature.  Sour  cream  can  be  churned  at  higher 
temperatures  than  sweet  cream  with  less  loss  of  fat  in 
the  buttermilk.  This  is  of  great  practical  importance 
since  it  is  difficult  to  get  low  enough  temperatures  for  the 
successful  churning  of  sweet  cream. 

Keeping  Quality.  It  has  been  found  that  butter  with 
the  best  keeping  quality  is  obtained  from  well  ripened 
cream.  It  is  true,  however,  that  butter  made  from  cream 
that  has  been  ripened  a  little  too  far  will  possess  very 
poor  keeping  quality.  An  acidity  of  .5%  should  be  placed 
as  the  limit  when  good  keeping  quality  is  desired. 

CONTROI,  OF  THE  RIPENING  PROCESS. 

We  have  learned  that  the  highly  desirable  flavor  and 
aroma  of  butter  are  produced  by  the  development  of  the 
lactic  fermentation.  In  the  following  discussion  we  shall 
take  up  the  means  of  controlling  this  fermentation  and 
treat  of  the  more  mechanical  side  of  cream  ripening.  This 
will  include:  (i)  the  ripening  temperature;  (2)  time 
in  ripening;  (3)  agitation  of  cream  during  ripening. 

Ripening  Temperature.  Since  the  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria develop  best  at  a  temperature  of  90°  to  98°  F. 
it  would  seem  desirable  to  ripen  cream  at  these  tem- 
peratures. But  this  is  not  practicable  because  of  the 
unfavorable  effect  of  high  temperatures  on  the  body 
of  the  cream  and  the  butter.  Good  butter  can  be  pro- 
duced, however,  under  a  wide  range  of  ripening  tem- 
peratures. The  limits  may  be  placed  at  60°  and  80°. 
Temperatures  below  60°  are  too  unfavorable  for  the 
development  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria.  Any  check 
upon  the  growth  of  these  germs  increases  the  chances 
for  the  development  of  other  kinds  of  bacteria.  But 
it    mav    be    added    that    when    cream    has    reached    an 


MILK   AND    ITS   PRODUCTS  173 

acidity  of  4%  or  more,  the  ripening  may  be  finished  at  a 
temperature  between  55°  and  60°  with  good  resuks.  In 
general  practice  a  temperature  between  60°  and  70°  gives 
the  best  results.  This  means  that  the  main  portion  of  the 
npenmg  is  done  at  this  temperature.  The  ripening  is 
always  finished  at  temperatures  lower  than  this. 

Time  in  Ripening.  As  a  rule  quick  ripening  gives 
better  results  than  slow.  The  reason  for  this  is  evident. 
Quick  ripening  means  a  rapid  development  of  the  lactic 
fermentation  and,  therefore,  a  relatively  slow  develop- 
ment of  other  fermentations.  Practical  experience  shows 
us  that  the  growth  of  the  undesirable  germs  is  slow  in 
proportion  as  that  of  the  lactic  is  rapid.  For  instance, 
when  we  attempt  to  ripen  cream  at  55°  F.,  a  tempera- 
ture unfavorable  for  the  growth  of  the  lactic  acid  bac- 
teria, a  more  or  less  bitter  flavor  is  always  the  result. 
This  is  so  because  the  bitter  germs  develop  better  at  low 
temperatures  than  the  lactic  acid  bacteria. 

Stirring  Cream.  It  is  very  essential  in  cream  ripen- 
ing to  agitate  the  cream  frequently  to  insure  uniform 
ripening.  When  cream  remains  undisturbed  for  some 
time  the  fat  rises  in  the  same  way  that  it  does  in  milk, 
though  in  a  less  marked  degree.  The  result  Is  that  the 
upper  layers  are  richer  than  the  lower  and  will  sour  less 
rapidly,  since  the  action  of  the  lactic  acid  germs  is 
greater  in  thin  than  in  rich  cream. 

This  uneven  ripening  leads  to  a  poor  bodied  cream. 
Instead  of  being  smooth  and  glossy,  it  will  appear  coarse 
and  curdy  when  poured  from  a  dipper.  The  importance 
of  stirring  frequently  during  ripening  should  therefore 
not  be  underestimated. 

The  Use  of  Sour  Milk  (Starter).  Cream  produced 
under  cleanly  conditions  ordinarily  contains  manv  kinds 


174  DAIRY   FARMING 

of  bacteria — good,  bad,  and  indifiterent — and  to  insure  a 
large  predominance  of  the  lactic  acid  type  in  the  ripening 
process,  it  is  necessary  to  reinforce  the  bacteria  of  this 
type  already  existing  in  the  cream  by  adding  large  quan- 
tities of  them  in  a  pure  form,  that  is,  unmixed  with  un- 
desirable species.  Clean  flavored  sour  milk  or  skim  milk 
at  the  point  of  curdling  is  practically  a  pure  culture  of 
lactic  acid  organisms,  and  the  addition  of  about  lo  pounds 
of  such  milk  to  every  lOO  pounds  of  cream  will  result 
in  a  better  and  more  uniform  quality  of  butter. 

Amount  of  Acid  to  Develop.  Cream  of  average  ricn- 
ness  should  have  an  acidity  of  from  0.5  to  0.6  per  cent, 
when  churned.  A  rich  cream  requires  less  acid  than  a 
thin  cream. 

Sweet  and  Sour  Cream.  In  small  dairies,  where  only 
a  few  churnings  are  made  weekly,  care  should  be  taken 
never  to  mix  sweet  and  sour  cream  just  before  churning. 
This  always  results  in  a  heavy  loss  of  fat  in  the  butter- 
milk on  account  of  the  difference  in  the  churnability  of 
sweet  and  sour  cream. 

ACID  TEST  FOR  CREAM. 

Butter  makers  do  not  find  it  safe  to  rely  upon  their 
noses  in  determining  the  ripeness  of  cream  for  churning. 
They  use  in  daily  practice  tests  by  which  it  is  possible  to 
determine  the  actual  amount  of  acid  present.  The  method 
of  using  these  tests  is  based  upon  the  simplest  form  of 
titration,  which  consists  in  neutralizing  an  acid  with  an 
alkali  in  the  presence  of  an  indicator  which  determines 
when  the  point  of  neutrality  has  been  reached. 

In  the  tests  for  acidity  of  cream  the  alkali  used  is 
sodium  hydroxide.    This  is  made  up  of  a  definite  strength 


MILK   AND   ITS  PRODUCTS 


175 


so  that  the  amount  of  acid  can  be  calculated  from  the 
amount  of  alkali  used. 

Farrington's  Alkaline  Tablet  Test.  In  this  test  the 
alkali  is  used  in  a  dry  tablet  form  in  which  it  is  easily 
handled.  Each  tablet  contains  enough  alkali  to  neutralize 
.034  gram  of  lactic  acid. 

Apparatus  Used  for  the  Test.  This  is  shown  in  Fig. 
48,  and  consists  of  a  porcelain  cup,  one  17.6  c.c.  pipette, 
and  a  100  c.c.  rubber-stoppered,  graduated  glass  cylinder. 


Fig.  48.    Farrington  Acid  Test  Apparatus. 

Making  the  Solution.  The  solution  is  made  in  the 
graduated  cylinder  by  dissolving  5  tablets  in  enough  water 
to  make  97  c.c.  solution.  When  the  tablets  are  dissolved, 
which  takes  from  six  to  twelve  hours,  the  solution  should 
be  well  shaken  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  The  solution 
of  the  tablets  may  be  hastened  by  placing  the  graduate  in 
a  reclining  position,  as  shown  in  the  cut. 


176  DAIRY   FARMING 

Making  the  Test.  With  the  pipette  add  17.6  c.c.  of 
cream  to  the  cup,  then  with  the  same  pipette  add  an  equal 
amount  of  water.  Now  slowly  add  of  the  tablet  solution, 
rotating  the  cup  after  each  addition.  As  soon  as  a  per- 
manent pink  color  appears,  the  graduate  is  read  and  the 
number  of  c.c.  solution  used  will  indicate  the  number  of 
hundredths  of  one  per  cent  of  acid  in  the  cream.  Thus, 
if  it  required  50  c.c.  of  the  tablet  solution  to  neutralize  the 
cream  then  the  amount  of  acid  would  be  .50%.  From 
this  it  will  be  seen  that  with  the  Farrington  test  no  calcu- 
lation of  any  kind  is  necessary. 

CHURNING. 

Theory.  Under  the  physical  properties  of  butter  fat 
it  was  mentioned  that  this  fat  existed  in  milk  in  the  form 
of  extremely  minute  globules,  numbering  about  100,000,- 
000  per  drop  gf  milk.  In  rich  cream  this  number  is  in- 
creased at  least  a  dozen  times  owing  to  the  concentration 
of  the  fat  globules  during  the  separation  of  the  milk. 

So  long  as  milk  and  cream  remain  undisturbed,  the  fat 
remains  in  this  finely  divided  state  without  any  tendency 
whatever  to  flow  together.  This  tendency  of  the  globules 
to  remain  separate  was  formerly  ascribed  to  the  supposed 
presence  of  a  membrane  around  each  globule.  Later  re- 
searches, however,  have  proven  the  falsity  of  this  theory 
and  we  know  now  that  this  condition  of  the  fat  is  due 
to  the  surface  tension  of  the  globules  and  to  the  dense 
layer  of  casein  that  surrounds  them. 

Any  disturbance  great  enough  to  cause  the  globules  to 
break  through  this  caseous  layer  and  overcome  their  sur- 
face tension  will  cause  them  to  unite  or  coalesce,  a  process 
which  we  call  churning.     In  the  churning  of  cream  this 


MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  177 

process  of  coalescing  continues  until  the  fat  globules  have 
united  into  masses  visible  in  the  churn  as  butter  granules. 

CONDITIONS   THAT   INFLUENCE   CHURNING. 

There  are  a  number  of  conditions  that  have  an  impor- 
tant bearing  upon  the  process  of  churning.  These  may 
be  enumerated  as  follows : 

1.  Temperature. 

2.  Character  of  butter  fat. 

3.  Acidity  of  cream. 

4.  Richness  of  cream. 

5.  Amount  of  cream  in  churn. 

6.  Speed  of  churn. 

7.  Abnormal  fermentations. 

I.     Temperature.     To  have  the  miscroscopic  globules 
unite  in  churning  they  must  have  a  certain  degree  of  soft- 
ness or  fluidity,  which  is  greater  the  higlier  the  tempera- 
ture.    Hence  the  higher  the  temperature,  within  certain 
limits,  the  quicker  the  churning.     To  secure  the  best  re- 
sults the  temperature  must  be  such  as  to  churn  the  cream 
in  .from  thirty  to   forty-five   minutes.     This   is   brought 
about  in  different  creams  at  quite  different  temperatures. 
The  temperature  at  which  cream  must  be  churned  is 
determined  primarily  by  the  character  of  the  butter  fat 
and  partly  also  by  the  acidity  and  richness  of  the  cream. 
Most  cream  is  churned  between  55  and  60  degrees  Fahr. 
Rule  for  Churning  Temperature.   A  good  rule  to  fol- 
low with  regard  to  temperature  is  this :    When  the  cream 
enters  the  churn  with  a  richness  of  30  per  cent  and  an 
acidity  of  .5  to  .6  per  cent,  the  temperature  should  be 
such  that  the  cream  will  churn  in  from  thirtv  to  forty- 
five  minutes.     This  will  insure  an   exhaustive  churning 
and  leave  the  butter  in  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be 


178.  DAIRY   FARMING 

handled  without  injuring  its  texture.  Moreover,  the  but- 
termilk can  then  be  easily  removed,  so  that  when  a  plug 
is  taken  with  a  trier  the  day  after  it  is  churned  the  brine 
on  it  will  be  perfectly  clear. 

2.  Character  of  Butter  Fat.  The  fat  globules  in 
cream  from  different  sources  and  at  different  times  have 
the  proper  fluidity  to  unite  at  quite  different  temperatures. 
This  is  so  because  of  the  differences  in  the  relative  amount 
of  ''soft"  and  "hard"  fats  of  which  butter  fat  is  composed. 
When  the  hard  fats  largely  predominate  the  butter  fat 
will,  of  course,  have  a  high  melting  point.  Such  fat  may 
be  quite  hard  at  a  temperature  of  60°,  while  a  butter  fat 
of  a  low  melting  point  would  be  comparatively  soft  at 
this  temperature.  For  a  study  of  the  conditions  that 
influence  the  hardness  of  butter  fat  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  discussion  of  the  "insoluble  fats"  treated  in  the 
chapter  on  milk. 

3.  Acidity  of  Cream.  This  has  a  marked  influence  on 
the  churning  process.  Sour  or  ripened  cream  churns  with 
much  greater  ease  than  sw^eet  cream  because  the  acid 
renders  it  less  viscous.  The  ease  with  which  the  fat 
globules  travel  in  cream  becomes  greater  the  less  the 
viscosity.  Ripe  cream  will  therefore  always  churn  more 
quickly  than  sweet  cream.  Ripe  cream  also  permits  of  a 
higher  churning  temperature  than  sweet,  which  is  of  great 
practical  importance  where  it  is  diflicult  to  secure  low 
churning  temperatures. 

4.  Richness  of  Cream.  It  may  naturally  be  inferred 
that  the  closer  the  fat  globules  are  together  the  more 
quickly  they  will  unite  with  the  same  amount  of  concus- 
sion. In  rich  cream  the  globules  are  very  close  together, 
which  renders  it  more  easilv  churnable  than  thin  cream. 


MILK   AND    ITS   PRODUCTS 


179 


The  former  can  therefore  be  churned  in  the  same  length 
of  time  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  latter. 

The  ideal  richness  is  about  30%.  A  cream  much  richer 
than  this  will  stick  to  the  sides  of  the  churn,  which  re- 
duces the  amount  of  concussion.  The  addition  of  water 
to  the  churn  will  overcome  this  stickiness  and  cause  the 
butter  to  come  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  It  is  bet- 
ter, however,  to  avoid  an  excessive  richness  when  a  ex- 
haustive churning  is  to  be  expected. 

5.  Amount  of  Cream  in  Churn.  The  best  and  quick- 
est churning  is  secured  when  the  churn  is 
one-third  full.  With  more  or  less  cream 
than  this,  the  amount  of  concussion  is  re- 
duced and  the  length  of  time  in  churning 
correspondingly  increased. 

6.  Speed  of  Churn.  The  speed  of  the 
churn  should  be  such  as  to  produce  the  great- 
est possible  agitation  or  concussion  of  the 
cream.  Too  high  or  too  low  a  speed  reduces 
the  amount  of  concussion.  The  proper  speed 
for  each  particular  churn  must  be  determined 
by  experiment. 

7.  Abnormal  Fermentations.  The  slimy 
or  ropy  fermentation  sometimes  causes  trouble 
ni  churning  by  rendering  the  cream  exces- 
sively viscous.  Cream  from  single  herds  may 
become  so  viscous  as  to  render  churning  im- 
possible. 

Dairy  Thermometer.     One  of  the  essen- 
tials in  making  good  butter  is  a  thermometer 
rhermo^m-         ^^^^  ^^'^^  showu  in  Fig.  49.     It  is  necessary  to 
eter.  watch   the    temperature   of   the   cream    dur- 

ing   ripening,    and    to    secure    uniform    and    exhaustive 


180 


DAIRY   FARMING 


churnings  the  temperature  of  the  cream  must  always  be 
definitely  known  before  it  enters  the  churn. 

CHURN  I  NX  OPERATIONS. 

Churns.  Of  the  numerous  styles  of  churns  upon  the 
market  there  is  none  better  than  the  barrel  churn.  For 
large  dairymen,  however,  who  have  50  or  more  cows,  a 
combined  churn  and  butter  worker  is  recommended.  Such 
churns,  or  course,  require  some  form  of  power  to  run 
them,  and  no  large  dairy  is  expected  to  be  without  power. 

Preparing  the  Churn. 
Before  adding  the  cream, 
the  churn  should  be  scalded 
with  hot  water  and  then 
thoroughly  rinsed  with 
cold  water.  This  will 
"freshen"  the  churn  and 
fill  the  pores  of  the  wood 
with  water  so  that  the 
cream  and  butter  will  not 
stick. 

Straining  Cream.  All 
cream  should  be  carefully 
strained  into  the  churn. 
This  removes  the  possibil- 
ity of  white  specks  in  but- 
ter which  usually  consist  of  curd  or  dried  particles  of 
cream. 

Adding  the  Color.  The  amount  of  color  to  be  added 
depends  upon  the  kind  of  cream,  the  season  of  the  year 
and  the  market  demands. 

Jersey  or  Guernsey  cream  requires  much  less  color 
than  Holstein  because  it  contains  more  natural  color. 


Fig.  50.— Barrel  Churn. 


MILK    AND    ITS    PRODL/CTS  181 

During  the  summer  when  the  cows  are  feeding  on 
pastures  the  amount  of  color  needed  may  be  less  than 
half  that  required  in  the  winter  when  the  cows  are  feed- 
ing on  dry  feed. 

Different  markets  demand  different  shades  of  color. 
The  butter  must  therefore  be  colored  to  suit  the  market 
to  which  it  is  shipped. 

In  the  winter  time  about  one  ounce  of  color  is  required 
per  one  hundred  pounds  of  butter.  During  the  summer 
less  than  one-half  ounce  is  usually  sufficient. 

In  case  the  color  is  not  added  to  the  cream  (through  an 
oversight)  it  may  be  added  to  the  butter  at  the  time  of 
working  by  thoroughly  mixing  it  with  the  salt.  When  the 
colored  salt  has  been  evenly  distributed  through  the  butter 
the  color  will  also  be  uniform  throughout. 

Gas  in  Churn.  During  the  hrst  five  minutes  of  churn- 
ing the  vent  of  the  churn  should  be  opened  occasionally 
to  relieve  the  pressure  developed  inside.  This  pressure 
according  to  Babcock,  "is  chiefly  due  to  the  air  within 
becoming  saturated  with  moisture  and  not  to  gas  set  free 
from  the  cream." 

Size  of  Granules.  Butter  should  be  churned  until  the 
granules  are  about  half  the  size  of  a  pea.  When  larger 
than  this  it  is  more  difficult  to  remove  the  buttermilk  and 
distribute  the  salt.  When  smaller,  some  of  the  fine  grains 
are  liable  to  pass  out  with  the  buttermilk,  and  the  per- 
centage of  water  in  the  butter  is  reduced.  When  the 
granules  have  reached  the  right  size,  cold  water  may  be 
added  to  the  churn  to  cause  the  butter  to  float  better.  Salt 
will  answer  the  same  purpose.  The  churn  is  now  given 
two  or  three  revolutions  and  the  buttermilk  drawn  off. 

Washing  Butter.  One  washing  in  which  as  much 
wat'^r  is  used  as  there  was  cream  is  usually  sufficient. 


182  DAIRY    FAKML\a 

When  butter  churns  very  soft  two  washings  may  be  ad- 
vantageous. Too  much  washing  is  dangerous,  however, 
as  it  removes  the  dehcate  flavor  of  the  butter. 

Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance 
of  using  clean,  pure  water  for  washing.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  mipure  water  seriously  affects  the  flavor 
of  butter.  When  the  water  is  not  perfectly  pure  it  should 
be  filtered  or  pasteurized. 

Salting.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  nothing  but  the  best 
grades  of  salt  should  be  used  in  butter.  This  means  sah 
readily  soluble  in  water  and  free  from  impurities.  If  there 
is  much  foreign  matter  in  salt,  it  will  leave  a  turbid  ap- 
pearance and  a  slight  sediment  wdien  dissolved  in  a  tumb- 
ler of  clear  water. 

Object  of  Salting.  Salt  adds  flavor  to  butter  and  ma- 
terially increases  its  keeping  quality.  Very  high  salting, 
however,  has  a  tendency  to  detract  from  the  fine,  delicate 
aroma  of  butter  while  at  the  same  time  it  tends  to  cover 
up  slight  defects  in  the  flavor.  As  a  rule  a  butter  maker 
will  find  it  to  his  advantage  to  be  able  to  salt  his  butter 
rather  high. 

Rate  of  Salt.  The  rate  at  which  butter  should  be 
salted,  other  conditions  the  same,  is  dependent  upon  mar- 
ket demands.  The  butter  maker  must  cater  to  the  mar- 
kets with  regard  to  the  amount  of  salt  to  use  as  he  does 
with  regard  to  color. 

The  rate  of  salt  used  does  not  necessarily  determine 
the  amount  contained  in  butter.  For  instance  it  is  per- 
fectly possible  under  certain  conditions  to  get  a  higher 
percentage  of  salt  in  butter  by  salting  at  the  rate  of  one 
ounce  per  pound  than  is  possible  under  other  conditions 
by  salting  at  the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  ounces.  This 
means  that  under  some  conditions  of  salting  more  salt  is 
loht  than  under  others. 


MILK   AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  183 

The  amount  of  salt  retained  in  butter  is  dependent 
upon : 

1.  Amount  of  drainage  before  salting. 

2.  Fineness  of  butter  granules. 

3.  Amount  of  butter  in  churn. 

1.  When  the  butter  is  salted  before  the  wash  water 
has  had  time  to  drain  away,  any  extra  amount  of  water 
remaining  will  wash  out  an  extra  amount  of  salt.  It  is 
good  practice,  however,  to  use  a  little  extra  salt  and 
drain  less  before  adding  it  as  the  salt  will  dissolve  better 
under  these  conditions. 

2.  Small  butter  granules  require  more  salt  than  large 
ones.  The  reason  for  this  may  be  stated  as  follows :  The 
surface  of  every  butter  granule  is  covered  with  a  thin 
film  of  water,  and  since,  the  total  surface  of  a  pound  of 
small  granules  is  greater  than  that  of  a  pound  of  larger 
ones,  the  amount  of  water  retained  on  them  is  greater. 
Small  granules  have  therefore  the  same  effect  as  insuffi- 
cient drainage,  namely,  washing  out  more  salt. 

3.  Relatively  less  salt  will  stick  to  the  churn  in  large 
chiirnings  than  in  small,  consequently  less  will  be  lost. 

Standard  Rate.  The  average  amount  of  salt  used  in 
butter  is  one  ounce  per  pound. 

WORKING  BUTTER. 

Object.  The  chief  object  in  working  butter  is  to  evenly 
incorporate  the  salt.  It  also  assists  in  expelling  any  sur- 
plus moisture. 

How  to  Work  Butter.  Where  only  a  small  amount 
of  butter  is  made,  the  butter  may  be  worked  with  a  ladle 
in  the  churn.  For  larger  amounts  it  is  desirable,  however, 
to  have  a  separate  worker  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  56. 


184 


DAIRY   FARM  IS  G 


Fig.  51.  -Butter  worker. 


Butter  is  worked  enough  when  the  salt  has  been  evenly 
distributed.  Just  when  this  point  has  been  reached  can 
not  always  be  told  from  the  appearance  of  the  butter 
immediately  after  working.     But  after  four  or  six  hours' 

standing  the  appear- 
ance of  white  streaks 
or  mottles  indicates 
that  the  butter  has 
not  been  sufficiently 
worked.  The  rule  to 
follow  is  to  work  the 
butter  just  enough  to 
prevent  the  appearance 
of  mottles.  To  avoid 
mottles  it  is  best  to 
work  butter  twice.  The 
Fig.  52. -Butter  Printer.  fi^st  time,  it  is  worked 


MILK  AND   ITS  PRODUCTS  185 

just  enough  to  fairly  incorporate  the  salt.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  stand  six  or  eight  hours,  after  which  white 
streaks  are  usually  noticeable  on  cutting  the  butter  with 
a  string.  The  second  working  should  cease  as  soon  as 
these  streaks  or  mottles  have  been  removed. 

Difficult  Churning.  The  causes  of  trouble  in  churn- 
ing may  be  enumerated  as  follows:  (i)  thin  cream,  (2) 
low  temperature,  (3)  sweet  cream,  (4)  high  viscosity  of 
cream,  (5)  churn  too  full,  (6)  too  high  or  too  low  speed 
of  churn,  (7)  colostrum  milk,  (8)  advanced  period  of 
lactation,  and  (9)  abnormally  rich  cream. 

Foaming.  This  is  usually  due  to  churning  a  thin 
cream  at  too  low  a  temperature,  or  to  a  high  viscosity  of 
the  cream.  When  caused  by  these  conditions  foaming 
can  usually  be  overcome  by  adding  warm  water  to  the 
churn.  Foaming  may  also  be  caused  by  having  the  churn 
too  full,  in  which  case  the  cream  should  be  divided  and 
two  churnings  made  instead  of  one. 

Cleaning  Churns.  After  the  butter  has  been  removed, 
the  churn  should  be  washed,  first  with  moderately  hot 
water,  next  with  boiling  hot  water  containing  a  little 
alkali,  and  finally  with  hot  water.  If  the  final  rinsing  is 
done  with  cold  water  the  churn  dries  too  slowly,  which 
is  apt  to  give  it  a  musty  smell.  This  daily  washing  should 
be  supplemented  occasionally  with  a  washing  with  lime 
water. 

Nothing  is  equal  to  the  cleansing  action  of  well  pre- 
pared lime  water  and  its  frequent  use  will  prevent  the 
peculiar  churn  odor  that  is  bound  to  develop  in  churns 
not  so  treated. 

The  outside  of  the  churn  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
with  moderately  hot  water  containing  a  small  amount  of 
alkali. 


186  DAIRY  FARMING 

MARKETING    BUTTER. 

For  fancy  trade,  one-pound  prints  wrapped  in  parch- 
ment paper  are  the  most  popular.  These  prints  are 
made  with  a  small  hand  printer  (Fig.  54)  which  should 
have  the  dairyman's  monogram  cut  into  it.  The  im- 
print of  the  monogram  in  the  butter  will  serve  as  a 
guarantee   of   its   genuineness.      It   is   also   desirable   to 


Fig.  53.     Print  Butter  Box. 


have  some  neat  lettering  on  the  parchment  wrapper,  such, 
for  example,  as  Fancy  Dairy  Butter,  Cold  Spring  Dairy 
Butter,  Golden  Jersey  Butter,  etc.  Prints  must  be  kept 
cold  to  preserve  their  attractive  rectangular  appearance. 
The  best  prices  for  butter  are  realized  by  selling  it 
direct  to  the  consumer.     With  dairvmen  who  retail  milk 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  186a 

and  cream,  this  method  of  marketing  not  only  yields  the 
best  prices,  but  is  also  the  most  convenient,  because  the 
butter  can  be  disposed  of  at  the  same  time  as  the  milk 
and  cream. 

A  covered  box  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  55  is  best 
adapted  for  carrying  print  butter  to  market.  Ice  may  be 
packed  in  the  box  with  the  butter  during  warm  weather. 

With  the  small  butter  producer  the  greatest  trouble  is 
finding  a  suitable  market  for  his  product.  It  is  custom- 
ary with  most  of  these  producers  to  sell  their  butter  to 
the  country  grocer,  who,  as  a  rule,  makes  little  discrimi- 
nation in  the  quality  of  the  butter,  the  good  and  the  poor 
selling  for  practically  the  same  price.  No  producer  of 
good  butter  can  afiford  to  market  his  butter  in  the  coun- 
try stores.  Those  who  have  made  farm  butter-making  a 
success  have  invariably  catered  to  private  trade,  or  have 
sold  their  butter  to  well-known  butter  dealers.  A  great 
deal  of  butter  could  be  sold  in  villages,  towns,  and  cities 
at  25  and  30  cents  a  pound  which  would  bring  only  12 
or  15  cents  in  the  country  stores.  Seek,  therefore,  pri- 
vate customers  who  are  willing  to  pay  for  a  good  product, 
and  if  these  are  not  within  easy  reach  by  road,  try  to 
reach  them  by  rail. 

Composition  of  Butter.  According  to  analysis  re- 
ported by  various  experiment  stations,  American  butter 
has  the  following  average  composition: 

Per  cent. 

Water   13 

Fat   83 

Proteids    i 

Salt    3 


186b 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Fig.  64.-Butter  Ladles. 


Fig.  55.— Butter  Carton  for 
Wrapping-  One-pound 
Butter  Prints. 


CHAPTER  XXIL 

FARM    CHE.ESEMAKING. 

Apparatus  and  Materials  Needed.  For  dairies  from 
10  to  75  cows,  the  following  list  is  recommended:  Steam 
heating  cheese  vat ;  boiler ;  i  }i  inch  press  screws ;  cheese 
hoops;  horizontal  and  perpendicular  cheese  knives;  one 
gallon  dipper;  curd  scoop;  whisk  broom;  lOO  cubic 
centimeter  graduate ;  acid  test ;  dairy  thermometer ;  rennet 
extract ;  cheese  color ;  cheese  salt ;  bandages  ;  press  cloths ; 
cheese  cloth  circles,  and  a  small  scales. 

Ripening  the  Milk.  Place  the  night's  and  morning's 
milk  in  the  cheese  vat  and  heat  to  a  temperature  of  8^°  F. 
Next  determine  the  acidity  of  the  milk  with  the  Far- 
rington  test  described  on  page  175.  (Other  tests  may  be 
used.)  If  less  than  0.18%  acid  is  found,  the  milk  should 
be  held  to  develop  more  acid.  If  very  sweet  it  is  desirable 
to  add  one  or  two  pounds  of  good  flavored,  sour  milk 
(starter,  see  p.  173)  per  100  pounds.  A  good  starter  will 
not  only  hasten  the  ripening  but  will  improve  the  flavor 
of  the  cheese. 

Adding  Color  and  Rennet  Extract.  As  soon  as  the 
milk  shows  an  acidity  of  0.18%  to  0.2%  add  color  at  the 
rate  of  one  ounce  (30  c.  c.)  per  1,000  pounds  of  milk  and 
thoroughly  mix.  The  amount  of  color  to  be  used  depends 
upon  the  season  of  the  year,  the  market  demands  and  the 
kind  of  milk.  After  the  color  is  thoroughly  incorporated, 
add  rennet  extract  (curdling  agent)  at  the  rate  of  about 
four  ounces  (120  c.  c.)  per  1,000  pounds  of  milk.  The 
rennet  extract  should  be  diluted  with  water  to  the  extent 

187 


188 


DAIRY    FARMING 


of  four  or  five  times  its  own  volume  before  adding  it  to 
the  milk.  After  the  rennet  extract  has  been  thoroughly 
stirred  in,  the  milk  should  be  allowed  to  stand  undis- 


turbed until  sufficiently  curdled  to  cut.  The  tempera- 
ture at  the  time  of  adding  the  rennet  should  be  86°  to 
90°  F. 


MILK   AND    ITS   PRODUCTS  189 

The  amount  of  rennet  extract  to  be  used  is  determined 
by  the  quickness  with  which  the  cheese  is  to  ripen.  If  a 
quick  ripening  cheese  is  wanted,  add  6  ounces  per  i,ooo 
pounds  of  milk.  If  a  slow  ripening  cheese  is  desired,  add 
3  ounces  for  i,ooo  pounds. 

Cheese  color  and  rennet  extract  are  usually  placed 
upon  the  market  in  liquid  form.  They  are,  however,  also 
procurable  in  dry,  tablet  form  in  which  they  are  pre- 
ferred for  making  cheese  on  a  small  scale. 

Cutting  the  Curd.  To  determine  when  the  curd  is 
ready  to  cut,  insert  the  forefinger,  slightly  break  the  curd 
with  the  thumb,  and  move  the  finger  in  the  direction  of 
the  break  and  parallel  to,  and  half  an  inch  below,  the 
surface.  If  the  whey  in  the  break  is  clear,  the  curd  is 
ready  to  cut;  if  milky,  the  curdling  has  not  progressed 
far  enough.  The  cutting  is  done  as  follows :  First  cut 
the  curd  in  horizontal  layers  with  the  horizontal  knife; 
next  cut  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  alternately,  with  the 
perpendicular  knife  until  the  curd  cubes  are  about  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  on  a  side. 

Warming  and  Stirring  the  Curd.  Immediately  after 
cutting,  stir  the  curd  very  gently,  yet  enough  to  prevent 
the  particles  from  matting  together.  Run  the  palm  of 
the  hand  along  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  vat  to  remove 
any  adhering  curd.  After  lo  minutes  stirring,  gradually 
apply  heat  and  bring  the  temperature  to  ioo°  F.  in  about 
30  minutes.  After  this  temperature  has  been  reached, 
the  curd  may  be  stirred  at  intervals  of  10  minutes  until 
ready  to  remove  the  whey.  It  is  important  to  keep  the 
temperature  as  close  to  100°  F.  as  possible. 

Drawing  Off  the  Whey.  When  a  bunch  of  curd  is 
pressed  between  the  two  hands  and  on  relieving  the  pres- 
sure the  particles  fall  apart  readily,  the  curd  is  ready  for 


190  DAIRY   FARMIXG 

the  removal  of  the  whey.  When  this  firmness  is  reached, 
the  whey  should  show  about  0.17%  acid.  When  the  milk 
is  set  at  the  proper  ripeness,  the  degree  of  firmness  and 
amount  of  acid  indicated  above  are  reached  in  about  two 
and  one-half  hours  after  adding  the  rennet  extract. 

Remove  the  whey  through  a  faucet  or  by  means  of  a 
siphon.  Place  a  perforated  wooden  rack  about  two 
inches  high  at  one  end  of  the  vat  and  cover  it  wath  a 
piece  of  muslin  or  cheese  cloth.  Scoop  the  curd  upon 
the  rack  and  stir.  The  rack  has  the  advantage  of  drain- 
ing the  curd  quickly  and  also  permits  the  use  of  hot 
water  under  the  curd  to  assist  in  keeping  the  temperature 
at  98°  F.,  a  temperature  which  should  be  maintained  up 
to  W'ithin  10  or  15  minutes  of  salting. 

If  a  rather  moist,  open  textured  cheese  is  desired,  stir 
30  minutes  after  the  removal  of  the  w^hey  and  salt.  In 
case  a  firm,  close-textured  cheese  is  wanted,  the  curd 
must  be  stirred  at  frequent  intervals  for  a  period  of  about 
two  hours  before  salting,  so  as  to  allow  more  acid  to 
develop.  A  firm  cheese  is  especially  desirable  during 
warm  weather  because  of  its  superior  keeping  quality. 

When  the  milk  is  not  of  uniformly  good  quality,  and 
when  an  especially  close-textured  and  uniform  cheese  is 
desired,  the  curd  should  be  allowed  to  mat  upon  the  racks. 
This  is  accomplished  as  follows:  As  soon  as  removed 
from  the  whey  the  curd  is  stirred  a  feW'  minutes,  spread 
about  six  inches  deep  upon  the  rack,  and  then  allow^ed 
to  mat  15  minutes,  after  which  it  is  cut  into  strips  about 
8  by  12  inches  and  then  turned.  After  another  15  min- 
utes, turn  again  and  pile  the  strips  two  layers  deep;  15 
minutes  later  turn  again  and  pile  three  layers  deep. 
Usually  after  one  and  a  half  to  two  hours  matting  the 
curd  tears  like  chicken  breast,  which  indicates  that  it  is 


MILK    AND    ITS   PRODUCTS  191 

ready  to  cut  into  little  strips  the  size  of  a  finger.  This 
done,  the  curd  is  stirred  about  30  minutes  and  then 
salted. 

Salting.  If  a  fast-curing  cheese  is  desired,  salt  at 
the  rate  of  234  pounds  of  salt  per  100  pounds  of  curd. 
When  a  slow-ripening  cheese  is  desired  salt  at  the  rate  of 
2^  pounds.  Use  only  the  best  grade  of  salt,  and  have 
the  curd  at  a  temperature  of  about  90°  F.  at  the  time  of 
salting. 

Molding  and  Pressing.  Twenty  to  thirty  minutes 
after  salting,  the  curd  is  ready  for  the  hoops  (molds) 
which  are  prepared  as  follows :  Place  a  piece  of  muslin 
in  the  bottom  of  the  hoop  and  on  top  of  this  a  cheese 
cloth  circle  somewhat  less  in  diameter  than  the  hoop. 
Now  place  the  bandage  on  the  bandager  so  that  when 
the  latter  is  in  position  the  bandage  will  lap  slightly  over 
the  cheese  cloth  circle  in  the  bottom  of  the  hoop.  Next 
put  in  the  curd.  This  done,  cover  with  a  piece  of  muslin 
and  put  on  the  cover  (follower).  Apply  pressure  very 
gradually  at  the  start  and  do  not  apply  full  pressure 
(about  20  lbs.  to  the  square  inch)  until  after  20  to  30 
minutes'  pressing.  Shortly  after  full  pressure  has  been 
applied,  remove  the  follower,  the  muslin  cloth,  and 
bandager.  Turn  the  projecting  bandage  over  onto  the 
cheese.  Next  place  a  cloth  circle  over  the  top,  replace 
the  muslin  and  bandager,  and  then  apply  full  pressure 
for  about  .12  hours,  when  the  cheese  is  taken  out  of  the 
hoop,  any  folds  or  irregularities  in  the  bandage  are 
straightened  out,  the  cheese  is  washed  off  with  hot 
water,  and  put  back  into  the  hoop  inverted.  Press  about 
ten  hours  longer  and  remove  the  cheese  from  the  hoop 
and  put  it  into  a  suitable  place  for  curing.  Leave  the 
cheese  cloth  circles  on  the  cheese. 


192  DAIRY   FARMING 

Ripening  or  Curing.  After  leaving  the  press  the 
cheese  should  be  placed  in  a  cool,  damp  room  with  ample 
ventilation.  Keep  the  temperature  as  near  60°  F.  as  pos- 
sible. The  curing  or  ripening  process,  which  consists  of 
the  transformation  of  insoluble  into  soluble  casein,  re- 
quires from  two  to  eight  months,  according  to  the  amount 
of  rennet  extract  and  salt  used,  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  cheese,  and  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  ripened. 
The  higher  the  temperature  and  moisture,  the  quicker 
the  cheese  will  ripen.  During  the  first  three  weeks  the 
cheese  should  be  turned  and  rubbed  daily,  and  if  any 
portion  of  it  is  not  covered  with  cheese  cloth,  grease 
should  be  applied  to  prevent  cracking.  If  the  curing 
room  is  dry,  the  cheese  should  be  covered  with  a  thin 
layer  of  paraffine  about  a  week  after  it  is  made,  to  pre- 
vent excessive  loss  of  moisture. 

Composition.  Cured  cheddar  cheese  has  the  follow- 
ing average  composition  :  Water,  34%  ;  fat,  36.5%  ;  pro- 
teids,  26%;  and  ash,  3.5%. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

STARTERS. 


Definition.-  Starter  is  the  general  term  applied  to 
cultures  of  lactic  acid  organisms,  whether  they  have  been 
selected  artificially  in  a  laboratory,  or  at  dairies  by  pick- 
ing out  milk  that  seems  to  contain  these  organisms  to 
the  exclusion  of  others.  A  good  starter  may  be  defined 
as  a  clean  flavored  batch  of  sour  milk  or  sour  skim-milk. 

The  word  starter  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
a  starter  is  used  to  ''start"  or  assist  the  development  of 
the  lactic  fermentation  in  cream  ripening.     ^ 

Object  of  Starters.  Cream  and  milk  ordinarily  con- 
tain many  kinds  of  bacteria— good,  bad,  and  indifferent 
—and  to  insure  the  predominance  of  the  lactic  acid  type 
in  the  ripening  process  it  is  necessary  to  reinforce  the 
bacteria  of  this  type  already  existing  in  the  cream  or 
milk  by  adding  large  quantities  of  them  in  a  pure  form, 
that  is,  unmixed  with  undesirable  species. 

The  bacterial  or  plant  life  of  cream  may  be  aptly  com- 
pared with  the  plant  life  of  a  garden.  In  both  we  find 
plants  of  a  desirable  and  undesirable  character.  The 
weeds  of  the  garden  correspond  to  the  bad  fermentations 
of  cream.  If  the  weeds  get  the  start  of  the  cultivated 
vegetables,  the  growth  of  the  latter  will  be  checked  or 
suppressed.  So  with  the  bacterial  fermentations  of 
cream.  When  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  predominate,  other 
fermentations   will   be   checked   or   crowded   out.      The 

193 


194  DAIRY   FARMIXG 

use  of  a  liberal  amount  of  starter  nearly  always  insures 
a  majority  of  good  bacteria  and  the  larger  this  majority 
the  better  the  product. 

NATURAL  STARTERS. 

Natural  starters  are  those  obtained  by  allowing  milk 
or  skim-milk  to  sour  in  the  ordinary  way.  If  the  milk 
or  skim-milk  is  produced  and  handled  under  cleanly  con- 
ditions, it  will  have  a  fairly  good  flavor  when  soured  to 
the  point  of  thickening.  But  it  is  difficult,  even  under 
cleanly  condition,  to  get  uniformly  good  flavored  sour 
milk  or  skim-milk  by  allow^ing  it  to  sour  in  the  usual 
way  and  for  this  reason  the  following  method  of  pre- 
paring natural  starters  should  be  given  preference. 

Selected  Natural  Starters.  The  most  satisfactory 
natural  starters  are  selected  and  prepared  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  Secure,  say,  one  quart  of  milk  from  each 
of  half  a  dozen  healthy  cows  not  far  advanced  in  lacta- 
tion, and  fed  on  good  feed.  Before  drawing  the  milk, 
brush  the  flanks  and  udders  of  the  cows  and  then  moisten 
them  with  water,  or  preferably,  coat  thinly  with  vaseline 
to  prevent  dislodgment  of  dust.  Then,  after  rejecting  the 
first  few  streams,  draw  the  milk  into  sterilized  quart 
jars  provided  with  narrow  necks.  Now  allow  the  milk 
to  sour,  uncovered,  in  a  clean,  pure  atmosphere  at  a 
temperature  between  65°  and  90°  F.  When  loppered 
pour  off  the  top  and  introduce  the  sample  with  the  best 
flavor  into  about  forty  pounds  of  sterilized  skim-milk 
and  sour  at  a  temperature  of  about  70°  F. 

A  starter  thus  selected  can  be  propagated  for  a  month 
or  more  by  daily  inoculating  newly  sterilized  or  pasteur- 
ized  milk   with   a   small   amount   of  the  old   or  mother 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  195 

starter.  Usually  three  or  four  pounds  of  the  mother 
starter  added  to  one  hundred  pounds  of  pasteurized  skim- 
milk  will  sour  it  in  twenty-four  hours  at  a  temperature 
of  65°  F.  Under  certain  conditions  of  weather  this 
amount  may  possibly  have  to  be  modified  a  little,  for  it 
is  well  known  that  on  hot  sultry  days  milk  will  sour 
more  quickly  at  a  given  temperature  than  on  cooler  days. 
The  best  rule  to  follow  is  to  use  enough  of  the  mother 
starter  to  sour  the  milk  in  twenty-four  hours  at  a  tem- 
perature of  65°  F. 

In  the  heating  process  all  of  the  active  bacteria  in  the 
skim-milk  have  been  destroyed,  thus  leaving  a  clean  field 
for  the  development  of  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  added  to 
it  from  the  bottle. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
method  of  using  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  is  similar  to 
the  use  of  yeast  germs  in  bread  making.  The  original 
germs  obtained  in  the  way  above  described,  or  from  the 
manufacturer,  may  be  propagated  for  weeks  by  daily 
transferring  a  small  amount  of  the  thickened  skim-milk 
to  newly  pasteurized  skim-milk. 

COMMERCIAI,   STARTERS. 

Commercial  starters  usually  consist  of  a  single  species 
of  lactic  acid  organisms.  These  starters  are  prepared  in 
laboratories  where  the  utmost  precautions  are  taken  to 
keep  them  free  from  undesirable  germs.  The  methods 
by  which  the  good  bacteria  are  separated  from  the  bad 
are  quite  complicated  and  of  too  little  practical  value  to 
permit  a  discussion  of  them  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
such  separation  is  possible  only  with  the  skilled  bac- 
teriologist. 


195  DAIRY   FARMING 

Preparation.  Most  of  the  commercial  cultures  are 
sent  out  in  one-ounce  bottles  which  are  hermetically 
sealed.  The  method  of  making  starters  from  them  is 
the  same  for  all  whether  they  are  obtained  in  the  liquid 
or  in  the  dry  form. 

In  making  the  first  batch  of  commercial  starter,  the 
entire  contents  of  the  bottle  is  put  into  a  quart  of  skim- 
milk,  sterilized  by  keeping  it  at  a  temperature  of  200° 
F.  for  two  hours,  and  then  cooling  to  80°  which  tem- 
perature should  be  maintained  until  the  starter  has  thick- 
ened. A  new  starter  is  now  prepared  by  introducing  the 
quart  of  starter  into  about  forty  pounds  of  skim-milk, 
pasteurized  by  keeping  it  at  a  temperature  of  170°  to  185° 
for  thirty  minutes  and  then  cooling  to  65°  F.  All  sub- 
sequent starters  are  prepared  in  the  same  way  except 
that  the  amount  of  mother  starter  for  inoculation  must 
be  reduced  a  little  for  a  few  days  because  the  germs 
become  more  vigorous  after  they  have  propagated  several 
days. 

The  first  and  second  starters  prepared  from  a  new 
culture  seldom  have  the  good  flavor  produced  in  sub- 
sequent starters.  The  cause  of  this  in  all  probability 
is  the  inactive  condition  of  the  germs  and  the  peculiar 
flavor  of  the  medium  in  which  they  are  sent  out. 

RENEWAL  OF   STARTERS. 

Under  average  farm  conditions  it  is  policy  to 
renew  the  starter  at  least  once  a  month  by  purchasing 
a  new  bottle  of  culture.  It  will  be  found  that  after  the 
starter  has  been  propagated  for  two  or  three  weeks  bad 
germs  will  begin  to  manifest  themselves  as  a  result  of 
imperfect  pasteurization,  contamination  from  the  air,  or 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  197 

from  overripening,  so  that  its  original  good  flavor  may 
be  seriously  impaired  at  the  end  of  one  month's  use.  It 
is  only  where  the  utmost  precautions  are  taken  in  pas- 
teurizing the  milk  and  ripening  the  starter,  that  it  is 
possible  to  propagate  a  starter  for  many  weeks  and  still 
maintain  a  good  flavor. 

POINTERS   ON    STARTERS. 

1.  Starters  give  best  results  when  added  to  cream 
or  milk  immediately  after  they  have  thickened. 

2.  An  overripe  starter  produces  somewhat  the  same 
effect  in  butter  as  overripened  cream.  Curdy  flavors  are 
usually  the  result  of  such  starters. 

3.  To  prevent  overripening,  starter  cans  or  starter 
vats  must  be  used  in  which  the  temperature  can  be  kept 
under  perfect  control. 

4.  Skim-milk  furnishes  the  best  medium  for  starters, 
since  this  has  undergone  the  cleansing  action  of  the 
separator  and  is  free  from  fat,  which  hampers  the  growth 
of  lactic  acid  bacteria. 

5.  Agitate  and  uncover  the  milk  while  heating  to  in- 
sure a  uniform  temperature  and  to  permit  undesirable 
odors  to  escape. 

6.  Always  dip  the  thermometer  in  hot  water  before 
inserting  it  into  pasteurized  milk.  The  pasteurizing  pro- 
cess becomes  a  delusion  when  dirty  thermometers  are 
used  for  observing  temperatures. 

7.  Always  use  a  sterilized  can  for  making  a  new 
starter. 

8.  Keep  the  starter  can  loosely  covered  after  the  milk 
has  been  heated  to  prevent  germs  from  the  air  getting 
into  it. 


198  DAIRY   FARMING 

9.  Stir  the  starter  occasionally  the  first  five  hours  after 
inoculation  to  insure  uniform  ripenin^^. 

10.  Never  disturb  the  starter  after  it  has  begun  thick- 
ening until  ready  to  use. 

11.  When  a  new  bottle  of  commercial  culture  is  used, 
the  first  two  starters  from  it  should  not  be  used  in  cream 
as  the  flavor  is  usually  inferior  on  account  of  the  slow- 
growth  of  the  bacteria  and  the  undesirable  flavor  imparted 
by  the  medium  in  which  the  cultures  are  sent  out.  A 
commercial  starter  is  usually  at  its  best  after  it  has  been 
propagated  a  week. 

12.  Always  sterilize  the  neck  of  a  new  bottle  of  culture 
before  emptying  the  contents  into  sterilized  skim-milk. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

SOFT  AND  FANCY  che:e:se;  making. 

There  is  a  rapidly  growing  demand  everywhere  for  the 
soft  varieties  of  cheese  such  as  cottage,  Neufchatel  and 
cream,  and  the  manufacture  of  this  class  of  cheese 
is  becoming  a  very  remunerative  branch  of  dairying. 
The  soft  varieties  of  cheese  are  deservedly  becoming  pop- 
ular  because   of   their   wholesomeness    and   palatability. 

COTTAGK  CHEESE  MAKING. 

Cottage  cheese,  which  is  made  from  skim-milk,  may 
be  manufactured  in  either  of  two  ways,  namely,  with 
or  without  rennet  extract.  The  cheese  resulting  from 
the  aise  of  rennet  extract  is  finer  grained  though  some- 
what more  acid  than  that  obtained  without  rennet. 

Rennet  Method.  When  rennet  extract  is  used,  the 
night's  separator  skim-milk  is  held  at  a  temperature  of 
about  65  degrees  F.  until  the  following  morning  when 
it  should  show  about  0.2  per  cent  acid.  The  temperature 
is  then  raised  to  75  degrees  F.,  and  rennet  extract 
added  to  the  skim-milk  at  the  rate  of  one-twentieth  of  an 
ounce  (about  one-half  teaspoonful)  per  hundred  pounds 
of  milk.  To  insure  an  even  distribution  of  the  rennet, 
it  should  be  diluted  with  a  cup  of  water  before  mixing 
it  with  the  milk.  As  soon  as  the  rennet  has  been  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  the  milk,  the  latter  should  be  allowed 

199 


200  DAIRY   FARMING 

to  stand  quietly  at  a  temperature  of  about  70  to  75  de- 
grees F.  for  24  hours,  when  a  firm  curd  will  have  formed. 
The  curd  is  now  carefully  dumped  into  a  cotton  bag  or 
strainer  and  allowed  to  drain  until  all  free  moisture 
has  escaped.  Salt  is  next  added  at  the  rate  of  one  and 
one-half  ounces  per  ten  pounds  of  cheese.  The  palat- 
ability  of  the  cheese  is  much  improved  by  adding  a  small 
amount  of  rich  cream  to  it. 

Fairly  good  results  may  be  obtained  by  omitting  the 
rennet. 

Starter  Method.  This  method  yields  the  highest 
quality  of  cheese  when  fine  flavored  starter  is  used.  Put 
the  skim-milk  into  a  vat  and  sour  it  with  a  good  starter 
at  a  temperature  of  between  90  and  95  degrees  F.  The 
more  starter  used,  up  to  25  per  cent,  the  better  the  qual- 
ity of  the  cheese.  Thoroughly  mix  the  starter  wath  the 
skim-milk  and  allow  to  remain  undisturbed  until  firmly 
curdled.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  cut  the  curd,  the 
same  as  in  cheddar  cheese  making,  and  at  once  begin 
stirring  by  hand.  Raise  the  temperature  to  104  degrees 
F.,  keeping  the  curd  constantly  stirred  during  the  heat- 
ing process.  After  this  the  curd  should  be  stirred  occa- 
sionally for  about  40  minutes,  when  the  whey  may  be 
drained  off. 

The  draining  is  best  accomplished  in  a  tin  strainer 
■covered  with  a  piece  of  cheesecloth.  The  curd  must  be 
hand-stirred  as  soon  as  it  has  been  dumped  into  the 
strainer,  but  the  stirring  should  be  done  very  gently  at 
the  start  to  prevent  loss  by  mashing  the  curd  particles. 
Continue  the  stirring  until  the  curd  is  firm  enough  to  pre- 
vent the  particles  sticking  together,  which  usually  re- 
quires about  five  minutes.    As  soon  as  the  curd  has  been 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  201 

stirred  dry  enough  it  is  wrapped  in  the  cloth  strainer 
and  squeezed  with  the  hands  until  mosj:  of  the  free  whey 
has  been  removed,  that  is,  until  it  is  dry  enough  to  per- 
mit granulating  it  to  fine  particles  by  rubbing  with  the 
hands. 

When  the  curd  has  been  squeezed  dry  enough  and 
thoroughly  granulated  by  rubbing  and  stirring  with  the 
hands,  it  should  be  salted  at  the  rate  of  about  one  and 
one-half  ounces  of  salt  per  ten  pounds  of  curd.  After 
salting  the  curd  is  soaked  with  skim-milk  or  milk ;  or 
where  a  high  quality  of  cheese  is  desired  a  thin  cream 
should  be  used. 

Packing  Cottage  Cheese.  The  same  packages  will 
answer  for  cheese  made  by  either  ctf  the  two  methods. 
For  simplicity  and  cheapness  there  is  no  better  method  of 
packing  than  the  following:  With  an  ordinary  butter 
printer,  print  the  cheese  in  one-pound  blocks  and  then  cut 
the  blocks  in  two.  This  will  make  packages  weighing  one- 
half  pound  each.  The  half-pound  blocks  are  wrapped 
in  thin  parchment  or  oiled  paper  in  a  manner  similar 
to  wrapping  one-pound  butter  prints.  The  sheets  of 
parchment  or  oiled  paper  for  this  purpose  should  be  six 
inches  wide  by  ten  and  one-half  inches  long.  Any  dealer 
in  dairy  supplies  can  furnish  this  paper  at  a  very  small 
cost.  If  the  cheese  is  to  be  sold  in  one  pound  packages 
the  wrapping  paper  should  be  eight  and  one-half  inches 
wide  by  ten  and  one-half  inches  long.  Cottage  cheese 
may  also  be  packed  in  water-proof  packages  such  as  are 
used  for  carrying  ice  cream,  oysters,  etc.  The  fiber  but- 
ter boxes,  made  of  pasteboard  and  lined  with  parchment 
paper,  will  also  be  found  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 
Both  of  the  above  styles  of  pickage  should  be  lined  with 


202  DAIRY   FARMING 

parchment  paper  before  putting  the  cheese  into  them.     . 

Some  use  wide-mouthed,  single  service  milk  bottles  for 
packing  cottage  cheese. 

Marketing.  When  much  cheese  is  made,  it  should 
be  marketed  at  fancy  grocery  stores  and  meat  markets. 
If  made  on  farms  that  operate  daily  milk  routes  in  the 
city,  much  cheese  can  be  sold  on  these  routes  to  con- 
sumers direct,  thus  saving  the  middleman's  profits.  The 
average  retail  price  of  the  cheese  is  ten  cents  per  pound. 

The  yield  of  cottage  cheese,  when  made  according  to 
the  methods  herein  described  will  approximate  15  pounds 
of  cheese  per  100  pounds  of  skim-milk. 

MAKING   NEUFCHATEL   CHEESE. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  American  Neufchatel 
cheese  may  be  made,  namely,  with  and  w^ithout  the  use 
of  starter.  The  method  of  making  the  cheese  without 
starter  is  as  follows :  Place  the  night's  milk  preferably  in 
shotgun  cans  and  cool  to  a  temperature  as  near  70  de- 
grees F.  as  possible.  Next  add  at  the  rate  of  about  one 
teaspoonful  of  rennet  extract  for  each  hundred  pounds  of 
whole  milk.  The  rennet  should  first  be  diluted  in  a  cup 
of  water  and  then  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk.  If 
the  temperature  of  the  milk  is  kept  at  70  degrees  F.  it 
will  be  thoroughly  curdled  in  from  15  to  20  hours,  when 
it  should  be  perceptibly  sour  to  the  taste.  The  actual 
amount  of  acidity  at  this  stage  should  be  about  0.3  per 
cent.  The  curd  is  now  poured  onto,  a  strainer  rack  cov- 
ered with  a  cotton  strainer  cloth,  or  it  may  be  poured 
or  dipped  into  cotton  bags,  to  drain.  After  the  curd  has 
drained  an  hour,  light  pressure  should  be  applied  to  it 
which  may  be  gradually  increased  to  hasten  the  draining. 


MILK   AND   ITS   PRODUCTS  203 

As  a  rule,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  draining  com- 
pleted in  about  three  hours,  the  temperature  during  this 
process  being  maintained  at  about  70  degrees  F.  Apply- 
ing moderate  pressure  will  hasten  the  draining  and  is 
recommended  for  best  results.  As  soon  as  the  curd  has 
sufficiently  drained,  salt  is  added  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce 
to  every  five  or  six  pounds  of  cheese.  The  cheese  should 
be  thoroughly  kneaded  with  the  hands  to  distribute  the 
salt  evenly  and  to  give  it  a  smooth  consistency.  It  is 
now  molded  into  cylindrical  packages,  i%x2^  inches, 
weighing  one-fourth  of  a  pound.  These  cylindrical 
masses  of  cheese  are  first  wrapped  in  thin  parchment  or 
oiled  paper  and  then  wrapped  in  tin  foil.  These  pack- 
ages usually  retail  at  five  cents  each. 

Starter  Method.  When  starter  is  used  a  better  flav- 
ored and  more  uniform  cheese  is  possible.  The  starter 
may  consist  of  well  thickened  whole  milk  allowed  to 
sour  in  a  natural  way,  but  whole  milk  soured  with  pure 
culture  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  is  preferable.  Where  pure 
cultures  are  used  the  whole  milk  intended  for  starter 
should  be  pasteurized  before  inoculating  it  with  the  cul- 
ture. 

When  starter  is  used  the  cheese  is  made  as  follows: 
Add  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  of  starter  to  four  pounds 
of  fresh  whole  milk.  The  mixture  should  have  a  tem- 
perature of  about  80  degrees  F.  Next  add  at  the  rate 
of  one-half  tablespoonful  of  rennet  extract  per  hundred 
pounds  of  milk,  mixing  the  rennet  with  the  milk  as 
previously  explained.  When  thoroughly  curdled,  which 
usually  requires  about  one  hour,  the  curd  is  ready  to 
drain.  The  rest  of  the  process  is  carried  out  the  same  as 
when  no  starter  is  used. 


204  DAIRY   FARMING 

Neufchatel  cheese  yields  from  i8  to  20  pounds  per 
100  pounds  of  milk. 

CREAM  CHEESE. 

Cream  cheese  is  made  from  milk  containing  about  ten 
per  cent  butter  fat;  that  is,  milk  reinforced  with  cream. 
Like  Neufchatel  cheese,  this  cheese  may  be  made  with 
and  without  starter,  and  the  processes  are  the  same  as 
with  Neufchatel  cheese,  except  that  it  will  be  found  ad- 
vantageous to  have  the  temperature  from  three  to  five 
degrees  higher.  Much  butter  fat  is  saved  when  making 
cream  cheese  by  the  starter  method.  Cream  cheese  is 
molded  in  rectangular  forms,  I^x2}4x2^  inches,  hold- 
ing about  one-quarter  of  a  pound.  These  packages  us- 
ually retail  at  ten  cents  each. 

CLUB    CHEESE. 

Another  kind  of  cheese  that  is  very  much  relished  and 
that  can  be  made  by  anyone,  is  known  as  ''club"  or 
''potted"  cheese.  The  method  of  making  this  cheese  is 
as  follows :  Grind  up  with  an  ordinary  meat  grinder  five 
pounds  of  old,  well-ripened  cheddar  cheese  of  good  fla- 
vor, and  mix  this  with  one  pound  of  good  butter.  The 
mixing  is  easily  accomplished  with  a  bread  mixer.  The 
mixing  should  be  continued  until  the  cheese  has  a  uni- 
form consistency,  free  from  lumps.  Running  the  mix- 
ture through  the  grinder  a  second  time  and  working  it 
with  the  hands  will  assist  in  reducing  the  lumps.  This 
cheese  can  be  packed  in  small  tin-top  jelly  tumblers,  cov- 
ering the  top  of  the  cheese  with  parchment  paper.  This 
makes  an  exceedingly  palatable  cheese  which  retails,  as 
a  rule,  at  forty  cents  a  pound.  The  cheese  may  also  be 
packed  in  the  same  manner  as  Neufchatel. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

COOLING    AND    AERATION    O^    MILK    AND    CREAM. 

Importance  of  Low  Temperature.  Milk  always  con- 
tains bacteria  no  matter  how  cleanly  the  conditions  under 
which  it  is  drawn.  At  ordinary  temperatures  these  bac- 
teria increase  with  marvelous  rapidity;  at  low  tempera- 
tures their  growth  practically  ceases.  The  effect  of  tem- 
perature on  bacterial  development  is  graphically  shown 
in  Fig.   57. 


Fig.  67.— Relation  of  temperature  to  bacterial  growth. 

a  represents  a  single  bacterium;  b,  its  progeny  in  twenty-four  hours  in 
milk  kept  at  50°  F.;  c,  its  progeny  in  twenty-four  hours  in  milk  kept  at  70°  F. 
(Bui.  2(5,  Storrs,  Conn.) 

At  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  the  bacteria  multiplied  five 
times;  at  70°  F.  they  multiplied  seven  hundred  and  fifty 
times. 

Roughly  speaking,  at  98^  F.  bacteria  multiply  one  hun- 

205 


206  DAIRY  FARMING 

dred  times  faster  than  at  70°  F.  At  1,2°  F.  bacterial  de- 
velopment practically  ceases. 

Milk  or  cream  may  be  kept  sweet  a  long  time  at  40° 
to  45°  F.  because  the  lactic  acid  bacteria  practically  stop 
growing  at  these  temperatures.  But  there  are  other 
classes  of  bacteria  that  can  grow  at  these  temperatures, 
as  evidenced  by  the  production  of  undesirable  flavors. 
Such  flavors  usually  become  noticeable  after  thirty-six 
hours.  Where  milk  and  cream  are  to  be  kept  in  the  best 
possible  condition,  it  is  necessary  to  reduce  the  tempera- 
ture to  within  a  few  degrees  of  freezing. 

Lack  of  thorough  cooling  necessitates  two  deliveries  of 
milk  per  day,  and,  what  is  still  worse,  requires  many 
dairymen  to  milk  their  cows  shortly  after  midnight  and 
shortly  after  midday,  a  drudgery  which  casts  a  damper 
upon  the  whole  milk  business.  Lack  of  cooling  also  means 
financial  loss  through  souring  of  milk  and  leads  to  many 
dissatisfied  customers. 

Prompt  Cooling.  Milk  should  be  cooled  as  quickly 
as  possible  after  it  is  drawn.  Indeed,  the  milk  should  be 
taken  directly  from  the  cow  to  the  cooling  room  and 
promptly  cooled.  To  do  this  conveniently  it  is  necessary 
to  have  the  cooling  room  located  as  near  the  barn  as  is 
consistent  with  freedom  from  barn  odors. 

Too  often  the  milk  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  barn 
until  all  the  cows  have  been  milked,  and  this  may  require 
from  two  to  three  hours,  depending  upon  the  number 
of  cows  milked  by  each  milker.  A  few  hours  delay  in 
cooling  reduces  the  keeping  quality  of  milk  to  a  far  greater 
extent  than  is  commonly  supposed. 

Importance  of  Aeration.  Milk     not     only     con- 

tains bacteria  immediately  after  it  is  drawn,  but  it 
also  contains  gases,  chief  among  which,  perhaps,  is  car- 


COOLING    AND    AERATION  207 

bonic  acid  gas.  These  gases  should  be  removed  as  quickly 
as  possible  after  milking  by  exposing  the  milk  in  thin 
sheets  to  the  atmosphere.  Fortunately  the  construction 
of  modern  coolers  is  such  as  to  make  it  possible  to  do 
the  cooling  and  aerating  in  one  operation. 

Formerly  it  was  customary  for  dairymen  to  aerate 
their  milk  before  cooling.  Such  practice  is  known  to  give 
somewhat  better  aeration  than  is  possible  where  the  cool- 
ing and  aerating  are  performed  in  the  same  operation ; 
yet  the  difference  is  so  slight  that  consumers  cannot  detect 
it.  The  practice  of  aeratine  first  and  cooling  afterward 
is  therefore  being  abandoned. 

Coolers.  All  modern  coolers  permit  cooling  with  ice 
water.  Without  this  a  sufficiently  low  temperature  can- 
not be  obtained  to  stop  practically  all  bacterial  growth. 
To  meet  the  requirements  of  dairies  of  different  sizes,  sev- 
eral styles  of  coolers  are  herewith  described  and  illus- 
trated. 

Corrugated  Cooler.  This  style  of  cooler  is  shown  in 
Fig.  58,  which  also  shows  a  desirable  method  of  fastening 
it.  •  It  is  especially  adapted  to  dairies  having  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  cows.  The  cooler  consists  of  two  parts:  An 
upper  section  which  is  used  to  cool  milk  and  cream  with 
uniced  water,  and  a  lower  section  through  which  ice  water 
is  circulated. 

A  storage  tank  for  well  water  may  be  placed  above 
the  ceiling.  From  this  the  water  is  admitted  to  the  upper 
section  through  the  valve  which  is  used  to  regulate 
the  flow.  As  shown  by  the  arrows  the  water  enters  the 
section  at  the  bottom  and  discharges  at  the  top.  The 
waste  water  may  be  conducted  to  the  feed  water  tank  of 
the  boiler,  to  a  watering  trough,  or  other  places  where 
it  mav  be  useful. 


208 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Fig.  58.— Showing  Corrugated  Cooler  and  Method  of  Support. 

B}^  means  of  the  pump  at  the  left,  the  ice  water  is 
forced  back  into  the  small  tank  at  the  right,  which  con- 
tains finely  crushed  ice. 


COOLING   AND   AERATION 


209 


Cone=Shaped  Cooler.  For  dairies  having  fewer  than 
fifteen  cows  a  cheap  cooler  hke  that  shown  in  Fig.  59 
may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  water  enters  the  bottom 
of  the  cooler  and  discharges  at  the  top,  while  the  milk 
flows  in  a  thin  sheet  over  the  outside.     Ice  may  be  placed 

inside  the  cooler,  if  desired. 
The  can  at  the  top  is  the 
milk  receiver,  which  has 
small  openings  at  the  bot- 
tom near  the  outside, 
through  which  the  milk 
discharges  in  fine  streams, 
directly  upon  the  cone  be- 
low. 

Cooling  Without  Spe= 
cial  Coolers.  When  no 
special  coolers  are  at  hand 
milk  and  cream  should  be 
Fi  g.  59.-cone  Shaped  Cooler.  coolcd  in  Small  caus  by 
placing  them  in  a  tank  or  an  oil  barrel  cut  in  two.  Cold 
water  is  pumped  into  the  tank  or  barrel  in  such  a  way 
that  the  cold  water  drops  into  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
thus  forcing  out  the  warm  surface  water. 

Water  should  be  pumped  into  the  tank  at  frequent  in- 
tervals until  the  milk  or  cream  has  nearly  reached  the 
temperature  of  the  water.  The  time  of  cooling  is  ma- 
terially shortened  by  frequent  stirring,  which  is  a  very 
essential  part  in  cooling  milk  and  cream  in  cans. 

Where  milk  is  placed  in  large  cans  and  stirred  little, 
farmers  lose  in  having  the  test  lowered  by  hard  par- 
ticles of  cream  forming  at  the  top.  Where  milk  is 
properly  cooled,  hard  flakes  of  cream  or  churned  cream 
will  not  be   found  on  top  of  the  milk. 


210  DAIRY   FARMING 

Precautions  in  Cooling.  While  cooling  milk  or  cream, 
the  room  should  be  kept  damp,  especially  the  floor. 
This  will  keep  down  any  dust  that  may  be  in  the  room 
and  thus  keep  it  from  getting  into  the  milk.  Draughts 
should  be  avoided  during  cooling  for  the  same  rea- 
son. In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
the  real  harm  is  not  so  much  in  the  dust  particles  them- 
selves as  in  the  many  bacteria  which  usually  adhere  to 
them. 

Where  coolers  are  left  exposed  to  the  air  of  the  room 
after  they  have  been  cleaned  and  sterilized,  they  should 
be  rinsed  off  w^ith  boiling  water  just  before  using. 

It  is  important  also  to  use  a  reliable  thermometer. 
Ordinary  cheap  thermometers  often  read  two  to  six  de- 
grees too  high  or  too  low.  A  standard  thermometer 
should  be  on  hand,  by  which  the  cheaper  ones  may  be 
standardized. 

Never  Use  Ice  in  Milk  or  Cream.  Adding  ice  di- 
rectly to  milk  and  cream  is  a  pernicious,  though  not  un- 
common, practice.  The  best  of  natural  ice  contains  dirt 
and  bacteria.  Even  ice  made  by  mechanical  means  from 
distilled  water  often  contains  considerable  quantities  of 
impurities.  Ice  also  is  an  adulterant  just  as  much  as 
water.  In  case  of  cream  cooled  with  ice  the  body  is  un- 
satisfactory, even  if  the  cream  contains  the  required 
amount  of  fat. 

COLD  STORAGE. 

Cold  storage  of  some  kind  is  indispensable  to  a  well 
equipped  dairy.  Many,  however,  lack  this  essential, 
either  bcause  they  do  not  appreciate  its  importance,  or 


COOLING   AND   AERATION 


211 


because  of  the  rather  high  price  of  commercial  refrig- 
erators. 

The  construction  of  this  box,  shown  in  Fig.  60,  con- 


HINGE' 


Fig.  60.— Cross-Section  of  Cheap  Ice  Box 


sists  essentially  of  two  boxes  separated  by  one-inch  strips 
placed  at  interval's  of  about  one  foot.  Double  thickness 
of  building  paper  is  placed  on  both  sides  of  the  strips 


212  DAIRY   FARMING    ' 

and  tacked  to  the  boxes.  A  one-inch  strip,  two  inches 
wide,  covers  the  upper  space  between  the  one-inch  strips, 
thus  making  a  dead-air  space  between  the  two  boxes. 
The  construction  of  the  cover  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
bottom,  with  the  exception  that  there  is  a  flange  at  the 
front  and  sides  of  the  cover.  The  sides,  bottom  and 
cover  of  the  refrigerator  are  built  of  three-quarter-inch 
tongued  and  grooved  lumber,  five  and  a  half  inches 
wide.  The  ends  are  constructed  of  one  and  one-eighth 
inch  tongued  and  grooved  flooring  three  and  a  half 
inches  wide.  The  inside  of  the  ice  box  is  lined  with 
galvanized  iron. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

HOW    TO    SECURE    A    GOOD    MARKET. 

Quality.  As  a  rule  it  is  easy  enough  to  secure  some 
kind  of  a  market,  but  to  secure  the  best  frequently  re- 
quires considerable  effort.  To  get  fancy  prices  requires 
first  of  all  that  the  product  be  of  superior  quality.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  milk.  The  extensive  agitation  in 
recent  years  for  clean,  pure  milk  has  had  the  effect  of 
putting  a  high  premium  upon  such  milk.  The  public  is 
becoming  aware  of  the  dangers  which  lurk  in  dirty,  un- 
sanitary milk  and  is  willing  to  pay  a  good  price  for  milk 
whose  wholesomeness  is  unquestioned. 

Value  of  Advertising.  To  obtain  big  prices  it  is  not 
enough  to  have  products  of  superior  quality,  but  what- 
ever particular  merits  they  have  must  be  forcibly  brought 
to  the  attention  of  consumers.  In  other  words,  a  certain 
amount  of  advertising  is  necessary. 

It  is  good  policy  to  furnish  prospective  customers  a 
few  free  samples  and  to  distribute  leaflets  describing  the 
conditions  under  which  the  products  are  produced  and 
handled.  If  the  milk  is  produced  in  clean,  ventilated, 
whitewashed  stables,  and  from  cows  which  are  regularly 
tested  for  tuberculosis ;  if  the  milk  is  handled  by  clean, 
healthy  attendants  and  is  thoroughly  cooled  and  aerated 
immediately  after  milking;  and  if,  in  addition,  all  this 
is  certified  to  by  a  competent  inspector,  an  increase  in 
prices  and  patronage  is  certain  to  follow  when  such  facts 
are  placed  before  the  public. 

213 


214  DAIRY  FARMING 

The  majority  of  city  consumers  have  Httle  conception 
of  the  conditions  under  which  average  milk  is  produced. 
For  this  reason  the  man  who  is  producing  clean  milk  will 
find  it  highly  profitable  to  place  in  contrast  vivid  pictures 
of  the  conditions  that  yield  average  milk  and  those  that 
yield  sanitary  milk. 

Investigate  Outside  Markets.  Often  outside  mark- 
ets offer  better  prices  for  milk  and  cream  than  does  the 
home  market.  This  is  especially  true  of  cream.  This 
product  permits  of  long  distance  shipping  and  many  out- 
side markets  may  be  glad  to  get  it  at  fancy  prices  when 
the  home  market  may  be  entirely  overstocked. 

Dairymen  must  not  expect  the  market  to  come  to  them, 
however;  they  must  seek  the  market.  A  visit  or  corre- 
spondence with  managers  of  cafes,  hotels,  restaurants, 
drug  stores  and  ice  cream  manufactories  in  different 
cities,  is  frequently  the  means  of  securing  more  business 
and  better  prices. 

Where  one  is  just  starting  in  the  dairy  business  or 
trying  new  markets,  it  is  good  policy,  as  a  rule,  not  to 
ask  very  high  prices  at  the  start.  First  demonstrate  the 
merits  of  your  products.  If  these  are  of  a  high  order 
consumers  will  gradually  respond  to  demands  for  in- 
creased prices  rather  than  lose  the  products.  Too  high 
prices  at  the  start  are  likely  to  discourage  prospective 
buyers,  and  thus  deprive  you  of  an  opportunity  to  prove 
the  value  of  your  goods. 

Uniformity.  One  of  the  essentials  in  building  up  a 
good  market  is  uniformity  of  product.  Where  this  is 
lacking,  improvements  in  other  directions  will  be  of  little 
avail.  On  the  other  hand,  products  which  are  uniformly 
the  same,  week  after  week,  and  month  after  month,  are 


TO    SECURE    A    GOOD    MARKET  215 

likely  to  command  good  prices  even  when  of  only  medium 
quality. 

Punctuality.  Another  essential  in  building  up  a  good 
market  is  punctuality.  If  your  customer  expects  his  milk 
at  7:30,  do  not  deliver  it  at  7:40;  deliver  early  rather 
than  late.  If  you  are  shipping  cream  or  milk  you  cannot 
afford  to  miss  your  train — even  a  single  time.  It  gen- 
erally means  greater  disappointment  at  the  other  end  of 
the  line  than  one  would  anticipate. 

Try  to  Please.  Always  put  yourself  in  an  attitude 
to  please.  If  criticisms  come  concerning  your  products, 
you  cannot  afford  to  resent  them.  Usually  there  is  reason 
for  the  criticism.  Try  to  discover  the  trouble  and  remedy 
it. 

Delivery  Outfit.  Cleanliness  and  neatness  must  char- 
acterize the  dairy  business  throughout.  Milk  wagons, 
cans,  bottles,  drivers,  etc.,  must  present  a  clean  appear- 
ance. Where  they  do  not,  it  is  usually  an  easy  matter 
to  surmise  the  condition  of  milk. 

Use  a  Trade  Mark.-  The  name  or  monogram  of  the 
dairy,  placed  upon  the  products  and  delivery  wagons, 
guarantees  genuineness  and  will  materially  assist  in  se- 
curing a  better  and  more  extended  market.  It  is  one 
of  the  best  ways  of  advertising  a  superior  product. 

Secure  Your  Market  Early.  If  it  is  intended  to  sell 
cream  for  manufacture  into  ice  cream,  it  is  important 
to  get  a  market  early  in  the  spring.  It  is  difficult  to  find 
one  in  the  flush  of  the  ice  cream  season,  because  ice  cream 
dealers,  as  a  rule,  contract  considerably  in  advance  of 
the  time  they  need  the  cream.  If  it  is  intended  to  supply 
winter  resorts,  apply  for  the  market  early  in  the  fall. 
What  has  been  said  here  with  reference  to  cream  applies 
also  to  milk. 


216  DAIRY  FARMING 

Seci!re  Reliable  Customers;  Where  milk  and  cream 
are  shipped  some  distance,  it  is  important  to  determine 
beforehand  the  rehabiHty  of  the  buyer.  As  a  rule  it 
is  good  policy  not  to  make  more  than  three  shipments 
before  the  first  has  been  paid  for.  It  is  well,  even  where 
milk  and  cream  are  sold  locally,  to  investigate  the  stand- 
ings of  customers  before  their  accounts  have  run  up  very 
high. 

Selling  Direct  to  Consumers.  No  argument  is  need- 
ed to  show  the  advantage  of  selling  dairy  products  direct 
to  consumers  wherever  this  is  possible.  It  means  the 
elimination  of  the  middleman  whose  profits  are  saved  to 
the  dairyman. 

Letterhead  Stationery.  It  is  not  only  businesslike 
to  use  stationery  with  a  suitable  letterhead^  but  it  also 
serves  to  advertise  the  business.  The  following  is  sub- 
mitted as  a  suitable  form  of  letterhead : 

Springdale  Sanitary  Dairy. 

J.  C.  Boone,  Prop. 

Dealer  in 

Pure,  Bottled,  Jersey  Milk  and  Cream 

from  Tuberculin  Tested  Cows. 
Reidsville,   N.  H 190.  . 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

MARKETING    MILK   AND   CREAM 
RETAILING. 


Dip  Method.  The  old  method  of  hauling  milk  to  the 
city  in  five,  eight  or  ten  gallon  cans  and  removing  each 
patron's  allowance  by  means  of  a  dipper  or  faucet,  has 
been  found  so  objectionable  that  the  practice  has  been 
largely  abandoned.  The  principal  objections  to  this 
method  are:  (i)  The  admission  of 
dust  and  bacteria  to  the  milk  while 
measuring  it;  (2)  the  use  of  unsteri- 
lized  milk  vessels  by  consumers;  (3) 
exposure  of  the  vessels  to  dust  while 
on  the  steps  of  the  consumer;  (4)  the 
use  of  unclean  vessels  by  milkmen  in 
measuring  each  customer's  share;  (5) 
lack  of  uniformity  in  the  milk,  espe- 
cially if  removed  from  the  cans  by 
means  of  a  faucet,  in  which  case  the 
first  drawn  milk  is  likely  to  be  lowest 
in  fat  content;  and  (6)  the  possi- 
bility of  drivers  tampering  with  the 
milk. 

The  Use  of  Bottles.  Milk  and  cream  intended  for  re- 
tail trade  should  be  put  into  pint  or  quart  bottles,  like 
that  shown  in  Fig.  61.  The  advantages  of  this  method 
are  apparent  from  the  fact  that  the  milk  is  bot- 
tled  immediately    after    cooling    and    that   it    may    be 

217 


^0  BE  WASH^^ 


Fig.  61. -Milk  Bottle. 


218 


DAIRY  FARMING 


kept  in  the  same  bottle  until  it  is  to  be  consumed. 
\Mienever  milk  is  changed  from  one  vessel  to  another 
there  is  always  more  or  less  contamination  from  dust  and 
bacteria. 

Bottling.  For  dairies  having  from  ten  to  twenty 
cows,  a  can  or  vat  provided  with  a  sanitary  faucet  will 
do  satisfactory  work  in  filling  bottles.  A  pouring  can 
with  a  slightly  curved  spout  may  also  be  used  for  this 
purpose. 


Fig.  62.  —Filling  BotUes  with  Machine.     (From  Da.  Div.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  A.) 

For  large  dairies  a  bottle  filler  like  that  shown  in  Fig. 
62  will  be  found  advantageous.  This  machine  fills  six 
bottles  at  the  same  time.  Larger  or  smaller  fillers  may  be 
had  if  desired.  In  selecting  a  bottle  filler  secure  one  of 
simplest  construction  and  preferably  without  rubber  at- 
tachments.    This  is  important  for  sanitary  reasons. 

Whatever  method  of  filling  is  used,  it  is  important  to 
keep  the  milk  well  stirred  while  filling,  so  as  to  insure 
uniform  quality  in  all  the  bottles. 


RETAILING    MILK    AND    CREAM 


219 


Immediately  after  filling,  the  bottles  should  be  capped 
with    paraffined    caps    made    for    this    purpose.       Fig. 
63  illustrates  a  cap  provided  with  a  little  handle  which 
facilitates  its  removal 
and    leaves    it    intact. 

During  bottling  the 
room  should  be  kept 
damp  to  keep  the  air 
free  from  dust  and 
bacteria.  No  air  cur- 
rent should  be  al- 
\owed  to  sweep  in 
from  the  outside. 
C)nly  clean  laundered 
white  suits  should  be 
worn  by  those  in 
charge  of  the  cooling 
and  bottling. 

Milk  Bottle  Delivery  Cases.       On    delivery    wagons 
the  bottles  are  carried  in  cases  holdino^  twelve  or  more 


Fig.  63.  -  Bottle  Cap  with  Handle. 


Fig.  64.— Galvanized  Iron  Milk  Bottle  Case. 


bottles  each.  These  cases  are  made  of  galvanized  iron 
or  wood,  or  of  both,  and  have  light  removable  partitions 
inside,  separating  the  bottles  to  keep  them  from  breaking. 
Galvanized  iron  cases,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  64,  are 


220  DAIRY  FARMING 

the   most  sanitary  and  also  permit  putting  crushed  ice 
around  the  bottles. 

Fig.  65  shows  a  galvanized  iron  milk  bottle  case, 
enclosed  by  a  box  made  of  one-inch  boards  and  pro- 
vided with  a  tight  fitting  cover.  Cases  of  this  kind  should 
be  used  in  warm  weather  to  keep  the  milk  cool  during 


Fig.  65.— Insulated  Galvanized  Iron  Milk  Bottle 
Case. 

delivery.  On  especially  warm  days,  crushed  ice  should 
be  used  around  the  bottles.  This  style  of  case  is  also 
recommended  where  bottles  are  shipped. 

A  great  deal  of  milk  is  spoiled  while  in  transit  to  the 
consumer.  The  last  milk  delivered  on  the  route  may 
be  on  the  road  five  or  six  hours  before  it  finally 
reaches  its  destination.  If  carried  in  open,  uniced  cases, 
on  warm  days,  an  exposure  of  such  duration  may  easily 
shorten  the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk  by  eight  or  more 
hours. 

A  matter  of  prime  importance  in  delivering  milk  in 
bottles  is  to  have  them  thoroughly  sterilized  before  using. 
Unless  this  is  done  milk  will  not  keep  long  and,  what  is 
worse,  is  likely  to  disseminate  disease  along  the  route. 


RETAILING    MILK    AND     CREAM  221 

This  danger  is  due  to  the  bottles'  passing  from  one  home 
to  another  and  eventually  reaching  a  home  in  which  there 
is  some  contagious  disease.  Ir  such  cases  there  is  always 
a  probability  that  the  bottles  may  become  infected  with 
the  disease  germs. 

Frequency  of  Delivering  Milk.  When  milk  is  cooled 
to  45°  F.  or  below  immediately  after  milking  and  is 
held  at  this  temperature  until  it  reaches  the  consumer,  one 
delivery  a  day  is  sufficient.  If  it  is  desirable,  however, 
to  make  two  deliveries  a  day,  these  should  be  made  inde- 
pendent of  the  milking;  that  is,  the  night's  milk  should 
be  delivered  in  the  morning  and  the  morning's  milk  in 
the  afternoon. 

In  some  sections,  especially  in  the  south,  milk  is  sold 
with  little  or  no  cooling  whatever.  Hence,  the  practice 
of  delivering  the  morning's  milk  before  breakfast,  and 
the  night's  milk  before  supper.  This  practice  requires 
the  first  milking  to  be  done  shortly  after  midnight  and 
the  second  milking  shortly  after  midday,  a  drudgery 
wholly  unnecessary  and  easily  obviated  by  thoroughly 
cooling  the  milk. 

Delivery  Wagons.  These  should  be  clean,  covered, 
well  painted,  and  provided  with  good  springs.  The  name 
of  the  dairy  should  be  printed  on  each  side.  A  neat  and  at- 
tractive delivery  wagon  is  essential  in  building  up  a  good 
trade. 

STANDARDIZING    MILK  AND   CREAM. 

This  is  a  process  by  which  milk  and  cream  are  brought 
to  a  definite  percentage  of  fat.  Cream  producers  are 
called  upon  to  furnish  cream  of  a  definite  richness,  and 
different  grades  may  be  demanded  by  different  buyers. 
The  simplest  way  to  meet  such  demands  is  to  have  the 
separator  deliver  cream  somewhat  richer  than  the  rich- 
est grade  called  for  and  to  reduce  this  to  the  required 
richness  by  adding  skim-milk. 


222  DAIRY   FARMING 

Reducing  Cream  with  Skim=milk.  When  a  definite 
quantity  of  standardized  cream  is  called  for,  determine 
first  the  amount  of  original  cream  (cream  as  it  leaves  the 
separator)   required  according  to  the  following  rule: 

Rule :  Multiply  the  number  of  pounds  of  standardized 
cream  called  for  by  its  test  and  divide  the  product  by  the 
test  of  the  original  cream. 

The  diflference  between  the  amounts  of  original  and 
standardized  cream  represents  the  amount  of  skim-milk 
required. 

Problem:  How  many  pounds  each  of  45%  cream  and 
skim-milk  (zero  test)  are  required  to  make  60  pounds  of 
18%  cream? 

Applying  the  above  rule  we  get, 

(60  X  18)  -^- 45  :^  24  =  No.  lbs.  of  original  cream. 

60  —  24  =  36  =  No.  lbs.  of  skim-milk. 

Milk  may  be  standardized  in  the  same  way. 

Mixing  Two  Milks  or  Two  Creams,  or  Milk  and 
Cream,  of  Different  Richness.  In  the  preceding  two 
formulas  the  test  of  the  skim-milk  was  considered  zero. 
When  milks  or  creams  of  different  tests  are  mixed  the 
calculation  becomes  more  difficult.  Pearson,  however, 
has  devised  a  method  by  which  calculations  of  this  kind 
are  very  much  simplified.     This  method  is  as  follows : 

Draw  a  rectangle  with  two  diagonals,  as  shown  below. 
At  the  left  hand  corners  place  the  tests  of  the  milks  or 
creams  to  be  mixed.     In  the  center  place  the  richness 


STANDARDIZING    MILK    AND     CREAM 


223 


desired.  At  the  right  hand  corners  place  the  differences 
between  the  two  numbers  in  Hne  with  these  corners. 
The  number  at  the  upper  right  hand  corner  represents 
the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  or  cream  to  use  with  the 
richness  indicated  in  the  upper  left  hand  corner.  Like- 
wise the  number  at  the  lower  right  hand  corner  repre- 
sents the  number  of  pounds  of  milk  or  cream  to  use,  with 
the  richness  indicated  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner. 

Example:     How   many  pounds  each   of   30%   cream 
and  3.5%  milk  required  to  make  25%  cream? 


i^o^r^zzi  z::^  z\.^  lb&. 


3.5%L::_ ^^1  ^LBs. 


21.5,  the  difference  between  3.5  and  25,  is  the  number 
of  pounds  of  30%  cream  needed;  and  5,  the  difference 
between  25  and  30,  is  the  number  of  pounds  of  3.5% 
milk  needed. 

From  the  ratio  of  milk  and  cream  thus  found,  any 
definite  quantity  is  easily  made  up.  If,  for  example,  300 
pounds  of  25%  cream  is  desired,  the  number  of  pounds 
each  of  30%  cream  and  3.5%  milk  is  determined  as  fol- 
lows: 

21.5  +  5  =  26.5 
21.5 

X  300  =  243.4,  the  number  of  pounds 

of  30%  cream. 


26.5 

5 
26.5 


X  300  =  56.6,  the  number  of  pounds 

of  3.5%  milk. 


224  DAIRY  FARMING 

SHIPPING    MILK   AND    CREAM. 

The  essential  things  in  shipping  milk  and  cream  are 
cleanliness  and  low  temperature.  It  is  possible  to  keep 
milk  and  cream  in  good  condition  for  two  or  three  days, 
if  produced  and  handled   under  cleanly   conditions  and 


I"ig.  6fi.     Milk  Cau. 


Fig.  67.— Felt  Jacket  on  Can. 


cooled  directly  after  milking  to  40°  F.  or  below.  This 
low  temperature  must  be  maintained  when  long  keeping 
quality  is  desired.  Every  dairy  should  be  provided  with 
a  good  ice  box  or  refrigerator,  into  which  milk  and  crearj 


SHIPPING    MILK    AND    CREAM 


225 


may  be  placed  immediately  after  cooling  and  in  which 
they  may  be  kept  until  ready  for  shipment. 

Shipping  in  Cans.  Various  insulated  cans  are  now 
upon  the  market  and  a  number  of  these  have  been  tested 
by  the  author.  The  tests  showed  that  these  cans  possess 
about  the  same  insulating  effect  as  the  felt  jackets  that 
are  commonly 
wrapped  around  ordi- 
nary milk  cans.  Since 
the  latter,  as  a  rule, 
are  more  durable  and 
more  easily  handled, 
they  will  be  found 
more  satisfactory 
when  wrapped  with  a 
felt  jacket  than  the  so- 
called  insulated  ship- 
ping cans. 

When  milk  and 
cream  are  cooled  close 
to  freezing  and  placed 
in  ordinary  milk  cans 
wrapped  in  felt  jack- 
ets, they  may  be  safe- 
ly shipped  to  any 
point  that  may  be 
reached  within 
24  hours  even 
i  n  warm  weather. 
If  the  temperature  of  the  milk  and  cream  at  the  time  of 
shipment  is  50°  F.  or  higher,  then  long  distance  ship- 
ment is  best  accomplished  by  the  use  of  an  ordinary  can 
placed  inside  of  a  covered  ice  cream  shipping  tub  con- 
taining  ice.      Such   a    tub   has   practically  the   same   in- 


Fig.  68.  —Screw  Top  Can. 


226  DAIRY  FARMING 

sulating  effect  as  a  felt  jacket,  but  is  rather  heavy  and 
cumbersome  and  should  not  be  used  except  in  cases  where 
it  is  necessary  to  pack  ice  around  the  cream  or  milk.  The 
best  results  from  the  ice  are  secured  by  packing  it  in 
large  lumps  around  the  neck  of  the  can. 

Shipping  in  Bottles.  Where  milk  and  cream  are 
shipped  in  bottles,  the  latter  should  be  placed  in  insulated 
delivery  cases  (Fig.  65)  and  surrounded  with  crushed 
ice.  The  cases  should  have  the  owner's  address  on  them 
and  must  be  kept  locked  while  in  transit. 

Mode  of  Shipping.-  The  usual  way  of  shipping  milk 
and  cream  is  by  express.  In  the  main  dairy  sections  bag- 
gage rates  are  available.  These  rates  are  lower  than  ex- 
press rates  and  can  be  obtained  nearly  everywhere  by 
special  arrangement  with  the  railroad  companies. 

Shipping  rates  should  always  be  obtained  in  advance 
of  shipment  and  the  charges  should  be  prepaid.  A  con- 
siderable saving  is  certain  to  be  effected  by  rigidly  ad- 
hering to  this  practice.  Insist  upon  getting  the  lowest 
rates  possible. 

Pointers  on  Shipping.  Have  the  name  and  address 
of  your  dairy  permanently  marked  in  brass  upon  every 
can  and  cover;  also  have  it  sewed  or  stitched  on  the  felt 
jackets.  This  is  necessary  to  insure  the  return  of  your 
own  goods.  The  name  and  address  will  be  put  upon  the 
cans  and  covers  by  the  dealer  from  whom  they  are  pur- 
chased, if  so  requested;  or,  in  case  unmarked  cans  are 
already  on  the  premises,  the  brass  plates  with  the  name 
and  address  may  be  purchased  from  dairy  supply  firms 
and  placed  upon  the  cans  and  covers  by  a  local  tinner. 

Even  when  labeled  as  indicated  above,  cans  will  oc- 
casionally get  lost.  Empty  cans  are  usually  returned  free 
of  charge  and,  for  this  reason,  express  receipts  are  com- 


SHIPPING    MILK    AND    CREAM  227 

inonly  not  taken  for  them.  This  is  a  mistake.  If  the 
purchaser  of  your  products  will  take  a  receipt  for  the 
empty  cans,  th^  express  company  becomes  responsible  for 
them  in  the  event  they  are  lost.  Without  the  receipt  it 
is  next  to  impossible  to  claim  damages  for  lost  goods. 

The  empty  cans  should  be  washed  before  they  are  re- 
turned. This  rhould  be  done  for  sanitary  reasons  as  well 
as  for  the  protection  of  the  cans,  which  are  short-lived 
unless  washed  and  dried  immediately  after  use. 

Another  matter  of  importance  in  shipping  is  to  have 
the  cans  full  to  prevent  churning. 


—Lead  Seal  and  Seal  Press. 


It  is  necessary  also  to  have  the  cans  sealed  to  prevent 
tampering  with  the  contents.  The  sealing  is  easily  accom- 
plished by  means  of  lead  seals  and  a  seal  press  (Fig.  69). 

In  delivering  the  cream  or  milk  at  the  station  the  de- 
livery man  should  see  to  it  that  the  cans  are  put  in  as 
cool  a  place  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


ICK    CREAM    MAKING 


Kind  of  Cream.  Select  the  best  flavored  sweet  cream 
containing  about  20%  butter  fat.  To  secure  the  best 
bodied  ice  cream  and  the  proper  swell,  cream  should  be 
kept  as  near  the  freezing  point  as  possible  for  twenty- 
four  hours  previous  to  freezing. 

Freezing  Process.  With  an  initial  temperature  of 
about  35°  F.,  the  time  required  to  freeze  ice  cream  should 
average  about  twelve  minutes,  and  to  get  the  best  con- 
sistency the  temperature  at  the  close  of  the  freezing 
process  should  be  approximately  28°  F. 

Too  quick  freezing  causes  the  water  to  separate  from 
the  cream,  which  results  in  a  granular  ice  cream.  Freez- 
ing too  slowly  reduces  the  overrun  and  tends  to  make  the 
ice  cream  smeary. 

To  reduce  the  temperature  of  a  mass  of  cream  below 
the  freezing  point,  requires  a  freezing  mixture  of  a  low 
temperature.  Such  a  mixture  is  secured  by  mixing  salt 
and  crushed  ice  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  salt  to  about 
six  to  twelve  of  ice.  The  purpose  of  the  salt  is  to  lower 
the  freezing  point  of  the  melting  ice  and  to  hasten  the 
melting. 

To  melt  one  pound  of  ice  at  32°  F.  into  water  at  the 
same  temperature  requires  142  heat  units.  Rapidly  melt- 
ing ice,  therefore,  absorbs  a  large  quantity  of  heat  which 

228 


ICE   CREAM   MAKING  229 

in  the  freezing  of  cream  is  largely  extracted  from  the 
cream. 

The  temperature  of  the  ice  cream  mixture  when  start- 
ing the  freezer  should  be  as  near  freezing  as  possible  to 
prevent  churning  the  cream.  The  tendency  to  churn  is 
also  lessened  by  revolving  the  freezer  slowly  the  first  few 
minutes  in  freezing. 

In  packing  the  freezing  mixture  around  the  cream 
container,  fill  the  freezer  about  half  full  of  finely  crushed 
ice  and  finish  the  filling  by  using  salt  and  ice  in  the 
proportion  of  about  one  to  three.  As  the  ice  mixture 
works  down  during  the  freezing  process,  continue  adding 
more  salt  and  ice  as  needed. 

If  the  freezer  is  started  while  the  cream  is  still  warm 
(about  60°  F.),  the  speed  of  the  freezer  must  be  kept 
down  until  a  temperature  of  about  35°  F.  is  reached. 
After  this  the  speed  is  increased  to  150  to  200  revolutions 
per  minute  until  the  cream  is  frozen.  This  speed  insures 
the  proper  incorporation  of  air  and  the  desirable  smooth- 
ness of  the  finished  product. 

The  freezer  should  be  stopped  before  the  cream  be- 
comes too  thick,  else  it  will  lose  some  of  the  air  that  has 
been  incorporated  as  well  as  show  a  tendency  to  coarse- 
ness in  texture.  Yield  and  quality  therefore  demand  that 
the  freezer  be  stopped  while  the  cream  is  still  a  trifle  soft. 

Vanilla  Ice  Cream.  To  make  three  gallons  of  finished 
ice  cream,  requires  about  two  gallons  of  cream  to  which 
should  be  added  about  three  pounds  of  sugar,  or  one 
and  one-half  pounds  to  the  gallon.  The  sugar  should  be 
well  mixed  with  the  cream  and  allowed  to  dissolve  before 
starting  the  freezer.  Next  add  at  the  rate  of  about  two- 
thirds  ounce  of  vanilla  extract  and   freeze. 


230  DAIRY   FARMING 

Chocolate  Ice  Cream.  This  can  be  made  by  adding 
chocolate  flavor  to  finished  vanilla  ice  cream. 

Where  a  regular  batch  of  chocolate  ice  cream  is  made, 
the  chocolate  is  added  before  starting  to  freeze. 

Lemon  Ice  Cream.  In  making  lemon  flavored  ice 
cream,  use  the  best  paper-wrapped  lemons,  free  from  any 
signs  of  decay.  Wash  the  lemons  lightly  in  cold  water 
and  grate  off  the  outer,  yellowish  portion  of  the  rind, 
being  careful  not  to  grate  off  any  of  the  white  portion 
which  is  very  bitter.  Mix  the  grated  rind  with  sugar, 
using  one  ounce  of  sugar  for  each  lemon  rind.  Next  cut 
the  lemons  in  two  and  squeeze  out  the  juice,  removing 
any  seeds  that  may  have  dropped  in  from  the  squeezer. 
Mix  the  juice  with  the  sugared  rind  and  add  orange  juice 
to  the  mixture,  using  one  orange  to  every  three  or  four 
lemons.  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  for  about  one  hour, 
stirring  it  occasionally,  and  then  strain.  Use  at  the  rate 
of  one-half  pint  per  gallon  of  cream.  The  flavor  is  added 
to  the  cream  when  nearly  frozen  to  prevent  curdling  it. 
Use  two  pounds  of  sugar  per  gallon  of  cream. 

Walnut  Ice  Cream.  Use  two  gallons  of  cream,  three 
pounds  of  sugar,  one  and  one-third  ounces  vanilla  ex- 
tract and  one  and  one-third  pounds  of  ground  walnut 
meats.     Freeze  the  same  as  vanilla  ice  cream. 

Other  Nut  Ice  Creams.  Chestnut,  filbert,  hazelnut, 
pecan,  peanut  and  almond  ice  creams  may  be  prepared 
essentially  as  walnut  ice  cream. 

Strawberry  Ice  Cream.  Use  two  gallons  of  cream, 
three  pounds  of  sugar  and  two-thirds  quart  of  crushed 
strawberries.  The  fruit  should  be  added  to  the  cream 
after  it  is  partially  frozen  so  as  not  to  curdle  the  cream 
or  to  have  the  fruit  settle  to  the  bottom. 


ICB   CREAM   MAKING  231 

Other  Fruit  Ice  Creams.  Cherry,  raspberry,  pine- 
apple, peach,  apricot,  currant,  grape  and  cranberry  ice 
creams  are  made  the  same  as  strawberry,  except  that  the 
amount  of  sugar  is  varied  according  to  the  acidity  of 
the  fruit. 

Packing  Ice  Cream.  Remove  the  ice  cream  from  the 
freezer  while  still  in  rather  soft  condition  and  put  the 
same  in  packing  cans  which  have  been  thoroughly  chilled 
by  having  the  ice  and  salt  packed  around  them  about  ten 
minutes  before  receiving  the  ice  cream.  Most  of  the 
salt  should  be  put  near  the  top,  the  same  as  in  freezing. 
The  ice  cream  should  be  held  in  the  packing  cans  at  a 
temperature  below  20°  F. 

Remove  the  brine  and  repack  often  enough  to  prevent 
melting.  In  the  melting  process  the  water  separates  and 
forms  undesirable  crystals  when  the  cream  is  re  frozen. 
Always  repack  with  a  new  freezing  mixture  just  before 
the  ice  cream  leaves  the  dairy. 

The  Overrun  or  Swell.  This  refers  to  the  excess  of 
ice  cream  over  cream.  Anything  that  tends  to  incorporate 
and  hold  air  in  cream  conduces  to  a  large  overrun.  Thus 
excessive  beating  of  the  cream  during  freezing  mixes  a 
great  deal  of  air  with  it,  and  hence,  increases  the  over- 
run. A  high  viscosity  of  the  cream  holds  the  air  incor- 
porated during  freezing.  Fresh  separator  cream  has  a 
low  viscosity,  that  is,  does  not  whip  well,  hence  will  not 
swell  up  so  much  in  freezing  as  cream  that  has  been  kept 
cold  for  twenty-four  hours.  Pasteurized  cream  also  has 
a  low  viscosity,  but  this  will  improve  by  keeping  the 
cream  at  a  low  temperature  a  number  of  hours  before 
freezing. 

An  overrun  of  from  50  to  60  per  cent  is  large  enough. 


232  DAIRY   FARMING 

Overruns  approximating  80  to  90  per  cent  are  obtained 
at  the  expense  of  quality. 

Marketing  Ice  Cream.  Hardly  any  attempt  has  yet 
been  made  by  cream  producers  living  within  driving  dis- 
tance of  cities  to  convert  their  cream  into  ice  cream 
and  sell  this  product  direct  to  consumers.  This  is  some- 
what surprising,  since  the  largest  profits  in  the  cream 
business  have  hitherto  been  made  by  what  may  be  called 
the  middleman,  the  city  ice  cream  manufacturer. 

It  is  a  vital  matter  with  producers  to  reach  consumers 
direct  wherever  this  is  possible,  and  thus  save  the  mid- 
dleman's profits.  With  those  who  retail  milk  and  cream, 
the  marketing  of  ice  cream  would  entail  no  extra  expense. 

The  essential  thing  in  building  up  a  good  ice  cream 
trade  is  to  make  the  best  product  possible.  The  market 
is  glutted  with  cheap,  inferior  ice  cream,  and  the  call 
now  is  for  a  high  grade  product.  Fortunately  the  public 
is  beginning  to  realize  that  there  is  positive  danger  in 
eating  ice  cream  made  from  old,  stale  milk  or  cream,  and 
the  public  also  seems  to  begin  to  understand  that  the 
bulk  of  ice  cream  is  made  with  so-called  thickeners,  like 
gelatine,  corn  starch,  tapioca,  arrow  root,  and  others. 
Many  so-called  ice  creams  contain  no  cream  whatever. 
The  highest  quality  of  ice  cream  contains  nothing  Out 
good,  pure  cream,  sugar  and  flavoring. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

MAKING    AND   MARKETING   SKIM  MILK-BUTTERMILK. 

Souring  the  Skim=milk.  As  soon  as  the  skim-milk 
leaves  the  separator,  whole  m.ilk  is  added  at  the  rate  of 
one  gallon  to  twenty  gallons  of  skim-milk.  This  gives  the 
mixture  a  fat  content,  which  approximates  that  of  ordinary 
huttermilk.  A  large  quantity  of  pure  culture  of  lactic 
acid  bacteria  (starter,  see  p.  193)  is  next  added  and  the 
temperature  brought  to  70°  F.  Enough  starter  is  added  to 
curdle  the  skim-milk  in  about  six  hours  at  the  temperature 
mentioned.  This  requires  about  one  pound  of  culture  for 
every  three  pounds  of  skim-milk.  When  a  temperature 
above  70°  F.  is  employed,  there  is  a  tendency  for  whey 
to  separate  after  the  skim-milk  has  curdled. 

Churning.-  When  thoroughly  curdled,  the  skim-milk 
is  placed  in  a  churn  and  churned  for  about  thirty  minutes 
in  the  same  way  that  cream  is  churned  in  making  butter. 
The  churning  process  thoroughly  breaks  up  the  curd  clots, 
resulting  in  a  smooth,  thick  liquid  which  cannot  be  dis- 
tinguished from  ordinary  good  buttermilk. 

Cooling.  Immediately  after  the  buttermilk  leaves  the 
churn,  the  temperature  should  be  reduced  below  50°  F. 
to  prevent  further  development  of  acid  and  the  separa- 
tion of  the  whey.  Ordinary  milk  and  cream  coolers  with 
enlarged  holes  in  the  distributing  receptacle  will  answer 
very  satisfactorily. 

Straining.     As  soon  as  cooled,  the  buttermilk  should 
233 


234  DAIRY  FARMING 

be  run  through  a  strainer  consisting  of  one  thickness  of 
cheese  cloth  to  remove  any  unbroken  curd  clots. 

Bottling.  After  it  is  strained  the  buttermilk  is  bottled 
or  put  in  tin  cans  holding  from  one  to  five  gallons,  after 
which  it  is  pla'ced  in  the  refrigerator  where  it  is  held  until 
ready  for  delivery. 

Marketing  Skim=milk  Buttermilk.  In  trying  to  sell 
skimmilk-buttermilk  it  is  necessary  in  the  first  place,  to  ex- 
plain that  this  product,  when  made  as  herein  described,  is 
almost  identical  with  the  highest  grade  of  natural  butter- 
milk, both  in  composition  and  physical  properties,  and, 
therefore,  in  palatability  and  wholesomeness.  Indeed,  it 
is  not  thought  possible  under  average  conditions  to  secure 
natural  buttermilk  of  as  uniform  a  quality  or  as  fine  a 
flavor  as  can  be  obtained  from  skim-milk.  When  these 
facts  are  explained  to  dealers  and  consumers,  any  preju- 
dices which  might  exist  against  this  so-called  artificial 
product  are  certain  to  vanish.   . 

The  dealers  in  buttermilk  should  be  furnished  with 
attractive  signs,  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
product  is  for  sale  by  them.  Buttermilk  is  not  found  at 
all  soda  fountains,  and  unless  conspicuous  signs  are 
posted  at  these  places,  the  public  may  not  call  for  it. 

Buttermilk  may  readily  be  sold  to  drug  stores,  restau- 
rants, hotels  and  boarding  houses  at  from  ten  to  thirty 
cents  per  gallon,  averaging  about  twelve  cents  per  gallon. 

As  with  cottage  cheese,  the  most  satisfactory  way  of 
disposing  of  buttermilk  is  to  sell  it  direct  to  the  milk 
and  cream  customers  along  the  dairy  route. 

Where  buttermilk  is  intended  to  be  used  as  a  beverage, 
it  is  important  to  keep  its  temperature  below  50°  F.  until 
it  is  consumed. 

Food  Value  of  Buttermilk.      When  used  as  a  bever- 


SKIMMILK-BUTTERMILK  235 

age,  buttermilk  is  usually  appreciated  only  for  its  palata- 
bility.  Aside  from  this,  however,  it  has  a  high  dietetic, 
as  well  as  high  medicinal,  value.  In  certain  diseases, 
especially  those  affecting  the  alimentary  tract,  buttermilk 
is  considered  indispensable.  Its  nutritive  value  is  high, 
two  quarts  being  approximately  equal  to  one  pound  of 
good  beefsteak. 

Buttermilk  From  Pasteurized  Skim=milk.  The  best 
buttermilk  is  obtained  by  adding  the  starter  to  pasteurized 
skim-milk.  Under  such  conditions  the  entire  skim-milk 
becomes  virtually  a  starter  or  pure  culture  of  lactic  acid 
bacteria.  This  not  only  means  a  better  flavor  but  also 
insures  freedom  from  pathogenic  organisms.  Pasteuriza- 
tion also  lessens  the  tendency  for  the  whey  to  separate. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

CERTIFIED   MILK. 


Definition.  Certified  milk  is  milk  produced  under 
conditions  imposed  by  medical  milk  commissions,  which 
usually  employ  a  veterinarian,  a  bacteriologist  and  a 
chemist  to  look  after  the  production  of  the  milk.    It  must 


Fig.  70.  —Sanitary  Dairy  Barn.     (Da.  Div.,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  A.) 

be  free  from  disease  germs  and  preservatives,  must  have 
a  known  chemical  composition,  and  must  be  so  produced 
and  handled  as  to  insure  a  minimum  number  of  bacteria. 

236 


CERTIFIED    MILK  237 

If  the  producer  has  complied  with  all  the  requirements 
he  is  furnished  a  certificate  by  the  commission,  which 
permits  him  to  use  the  "certified"  label  on  his  products. 

The  term  "certified  milk"  is  registered  in  the  United 
States  patent  office  and  its  use  is  legally  permitted  only 
on  milk  approved  by  medical  milk  commissions. 

Uses.  Certified  milk  is  now  largely  used  for  infants 
and  invalids.    There  is,  however,  also  a  rapidly  increasing- 


Fig.  71.  —Truman  Sanitary  Milk  Pail.    (Storrs,  Conn.  Station.) 

use  made  of  this  milk  by  the  better  informed  people  who 
realize  the  unsanitary  condition  of  average  market  milk. 
Certified  milk  is  the  means  of  saving  the  lives  of  thou- 
sands of  infants  and  its  increasing  use  offers  splendid 
opportunities  for  dairymen  who  are  in  a  position  to 
meet  the  requirements  laid  down  by  medical  commissions. 
Production  and  Handling.  The  general  conditions 
called  for  in  the  production  of  "certified"  milk  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  those  stated  in  the  chapter  on  "sanitary 
milk  production." 


238  DAIRY  FARMING 

The  cows,  milkers  and  premises  are  regularly  inspected, 
and  the  milk  is  regularly  subjected  to  chemical  and  bac- 
teriological tests.  The  number  of  bacteria  permitted  by 
different  commissions  varies  from  10,000  to  30,000  per 
cubic  centimeter  of  milk ;  and  the  fat  content  ranges  from 
about  3.5  to  4.5  per  cent. 

The  milk  bottles  are  sealed  preferably  with  metallic 
caps  bearing  the  date  of  bottling  and  the  name  of  the 
commission.  Delivery  should  be  made  within  twenty- 
four  hours  after  the  milk  is  drawn  and  its  temperature 
during  this  time  should  not  exceed  45°   F. 

In  the  dairy  house  arrangements  must  be  such  as  to 
reduce  contamination  to  a  minimum.  A  receiving  can 
placed  in  an  ante-room  is  used  by  the  milkers  to  emptv 
their  pails,  and  from  this  the  milk  is  conducted  into  the 
milk  room.  A  sterilizer  with  doors  at  both  ends  is  pre- 
ferably placed  between  the  milk  room  and  the  wash  room, 
so  as  to  enable  the  milkers  to  get  their  pails  without  enter- 
ing the  milk  room  and.  at  the  same  time,  to  allow  the 
sterilized  bottles  to  be  removed  without  entering  the  wash 
room. 

Profits.  Obviously  it  costs  more  to  produce  certified 
than  average  market  milk,  but  the  additional  cost  is  less, 
as  a  rule,  than  the  increased  price  realized.  Certified 
dairies  that  have  failed  to  make  money  have  almost  in- 
variably invested  more  money  in  buildings  and  equipment 
than  was  actually  necessary.  It  has  been  shown  that  this 
class  of  milk  may  be  successfully  produced  in  quite  ordi- 
nary buildings  and  with  moderately  cheap  equipment. 
What  is  of  greatest  importance  is  extreme  cleanliness, 
which  is  achieved  mainly  through  intelligent  care  and 
management  of  every  detail  of  the  work  from  start  to 
finish. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

RELATIVE  MARKET  VALUE  OF  MILK  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 

Many  milk  producers  are  so  situated  as  to  make  it  pos- 
sible for  them  to  sell  either  milk,  cream,  butter,  cheese 
or  ice  cream.  To  those  so  situated  the  question  naturally 
arises,  what  method  of  disposal  will  yield  the  largest  re- 
turns? This,  of  course,  will  depend  to  a  great  extent 
upon  the  relative  market  prices  of  these  products. 

To  show  how  dairymen  may  determine  for  themselves 
in  what  form  they  can  realize  most  for  their  milk,  a 
simple  method  of  calculation  is  here  presented,  in  which, 
for  purposes  of  illustration,  the  following  prices  have 
been  adopted :  Milk,  seven  cents  per  quart ;  30%  cream, 
one  dollar  per  gallon ;  butter,  twenty-five  cents  per  pound ; 
cheese,  thirteen  cents  per  pound;  and  ice  cream,  made 
from  15%  cream,  one  dollar  per  gallon.  Using  these  as 
average  prices  for  a  given  locality,  determine  the  relative 
returns  from  one  hundred  pounds  of  milk  containing  4% 
(4  lbs.)  butterfat,  (i)  when  retailed  as  milk,  (2)  when 
sold  as  cream,  (3)  when  sold  as  butter,  (4)  when  sold 
as  cheese,  and  (5)  when  sold  as  ice  cream. 

1.  Value  of  Milk.  Since  milk  weighs  2.15  pounds  per 
quart,  100  pounds  of  4%  milk  are  equal  to  46.5  quarts, 
which,  at  7  cents  per  quart,  are  worth  $3.25. 

2.  A'alue  of  Cream.  One  hundred  pounds  of  4%  milk 
will  make  13.33  pounds  of  30%  cream,  as  determined  by 
the  following  rule : 

239 


240  DAIRY  FARMING 

Rule:  To  find  the  number  of  pounds  of  cream  that 
can  be  obtained  from  a  given  amount  of  milk,  multipl} 
the  milk  by  its  test  and  divide  the  product  by  the  test 
of  the  cream.  Thus  the  amount  of  30%  cream  from 
100  pounds  of  milk  testing  4%  equals 

100  X  4 

— ~ =  13-33  pounds. 

o 

Since  a  gallon  of  30%  cream  weighs  practically  the 
same  as  a  gallon  of  water  (8.35  lbs.),  the  13.33  pounds 
of  cream  are  equal  to  1.6  gallons  which,  at  $1.00  per  gal- 
lon, are  worth  $1.60.  Allowing  one-half  cent  per  pound 
for  skim-milk,  we  have  43  cents  as  the  value  of  the  86 
pounds  of  skim-milk,  which  gives  a  total  value  of  $2.03 
for  the  100  pounds  of  4%  milk. 

2.  Value  of  Butter.  One  hundred  pounds  of  4%  milk 
will  yield  4  2-3  pounds  of  butter,  because  where  up-to- 
date  methods  of  creaming  and  churning  are  followed 
every  pound  of  butter  fat  will  make  i  1-6  pounds  of 
butter.  Four  and  two-thirds  pounds  of  butter  at  25  cents 
per  pound  are  worth  $1.17.  Valuing  buttermilk  at  the 
same  price  as  skim-milk  (one-half  cent  per  pound)  48 
cents  should  be  added  to  the  $1.17  as  the  value  of  the 
skim-milk  and  buttermilk,  making  a  total  value  of  $1.65 
for  the  100  pounds  of  4%  milk. 

4.  Value  of  Cheese.  Since  one  pound  of  butterfat  yields 
approximately  2.6  pounds  of  cured  cheddar  cheese,  100 
pounds  of  4%  milk  will  make  4  X  2.6,  or  10.4  pounds  of 
cheese,  which,  at  13  cents  per  pound,  are  worth  $1.35. 
Allowing  10  cents  as  the  value  of  the  whey  from  the  100 
pounds  of  4%  milk,  we  get  a  total  value  of  $1.45. 


I'ALUE    OF    MILK    AND    ITS    PRODUCTS      241 

5.  Value  of  Ice  Cream.  Since  a  gallon  of  15%  cream 
weighs  8.45  pounds,  100  pounds  of  4%  milk  will  make 
3.15  gallons  of  15%  cream  (see  formula  for  calculating- 
cream,  p.  240)  or,  allowing  an  overrun  of  33  1-3%,  4.2 
gallons  of  ice  cream.  At  $1.00  per  gallon  this  is  worth 
$4.20.  To  this  must  be  added  the  value  of  73  pounds  of 
skim-milk  which,  at  one-half  cent  per  pound,  are  worth 
T^y  cents,  making  a  total  value  of  $4.57  for  the  100  pounds 
of  milk  made  into  ice  cream. 

Summary.  The  preceding  calculations  show  that  100 
pounds  of  4%  milk  are  worth 

$145  when  sold  as  cheese, 
1.65  when  sold  as  butler, 
2.03  when  sold  as  cream, 
3.25  when    retailed   as    milk, 
4.57  when  sold  as  ice  cream. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  above  figures  show  the 
relative  gross  returns  at  the  prices  given.  The  net  re- 
turns will  vary  greatly,  depending  largely  upon  the  near- 
ness to  market  and  the  quantity  of  milk  handled ;  also  to 
some  extent  upon  the  use  to  which  the  skim-milk  is  put. 
If  fed  to  pigs  and  calves  the  value  of  skim-milk  is  less 
than  one-half  cent  per  pound ;  if  made  into  buttermilk  or 
cottage  cheese  its  value  may  range  from  one  to  two 
cents  per  pound. 

Table  of  Values.  The  following  table  of  values  has 
been  prepared  for  handy  reference.  The  price  of  milk  is 
used  as  a  basis,  and  the  table  shows  at  what  prices  cream 
and  butter  must  be  sold  to  give  the  same  returns  as  milk : 


242 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Per  Cent,  of        When  Milk         20%  Cream 
Fat  in  Milk  sells  at        i    must  sell  at 


30%  Cream  Butter 

must  sell  at        must  sell  at 


5c  per  quart      20c  per  quart     36c  per  quart     50c  per  pound 


3.5 


6c  " 
8c  " 
10c    " 


31c 
42c 
53c 


4.0 


5c  per  quart 
6c    " 
8c    " 
10c    '« 


22c  per  quart 
27c    " 
37c    " 
46c    '• 


43c 
59c 
75c 


60c 

84c 

«1.06 


31c  per  quart     44c  per  pound 

38c    "        "       I  54c    " 


50c 
66c 


73c 
93c 


4.5 


5c  per  quart  20c  per  quart  28c  per  quart     39c  per  pound 

6c     "        "  [  24c     "        "  34c     "        "  47c     " 

8c    "        "  32c    "        "  46c    "        "       j  65c    " 

10c    "        "  41c    "        "  59c    "        "         82c    " 


5c  per  quart 

18c  per  quart 

2oc  per  quart 

35c  per  pound 

6.0 

6c    "        " 
8c    "        " 

21c    " 

29c    "        " 

30c    "        " 
42c    "        " 

43c    " 
59c    " 

10c    "        " 

37c    "        " 

53c    "        " 

75c    "        " 

In  calculating  the  above  values,  skim-milk  and  butter- 
milk have  been  rated  at  30  cents  per  100  pounds.  The 
weight  allowed  per  quart  is  as  follows :  ]\Iilk,  2.15  pounds ; 
20%  cream,  2.1  pounds;  and  30%  cream,  2.0  pounds. 
The  cost  of  handling  and  retailing  these  products,  as  well 
as  the  cost  of  making  the  butter,  has  not  been  considered. 

From  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  when  3.5%  milk  sells 
at  5  cents  per  quart,  20%  cream  must  sell  at  25  cents  per 
quart,  30%  cream  at  36  cents  per  quart,  and  butter  at  50 
cents  per  pound,  to  yield  equivalent  returns.  Similarly, 
when  5%  milk  sells  at  5  cents  per  quart,  20%  cream  must 
sell  at  18  cents  per  quart,  30%  cream,  at  25  cents  per  ' 
quart,  and  butter  at  35  cents  per  pound. 

The  table  emphasizes  the  importance  of  selling  milk  on 
the  basis  of  its  fat  content. 


PART   III. 

SUPPLEMENT 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

ESTIMATING   THE  VALUE  OF  DAIRY   STOCK. 

Valuing  Cows. 

To  put  dairying  on  a  business  basis  requires  that  a 
record  be  kept  of  each  cow  individually.  This  is  im- 
portant not  only  to  determine  which  cows  are  paying  for 
their  keep,  but  also  to  demonstrate  to  owners  that  high 
producers,  as  a  rule,  are  valued  too  low  in  comparison 
with  poor  producers.  Every  cow  must  be  valued  ac- 
cording to  the  net  returns  obtained  from  her;  that  is, 
every  item  of  expense  must  be  deducted  from  the  total 
receipts  in  order  to  know  whether  a  cow  has  been  kept 
at  a  profit  or  a  loss.  In  the  following  paragraphs  data 
are  presented  to  show  the  method  of  determining  the  net 
profits  as  well  as  to  give  some  idea  of  the  relative  value 
of  cows  of  different  productive  capacities.  The  figures 
presented  are  based  upon  pure  bred  herds  containing 
thirty  cows  and  one  bull  each.  Furthermore,  it  is  assumed 
that  all  concentrated  feeds  are  purchased  at  market  prices 
and  that  all  roughage  is  raised  on  the  farm  and  charged 
at  actual  cost  of  production.  To  furnish  the  necessary 
roughage  and  pasture,  one  and  one-half  acres  of  land  are 
allotted  to  each  cow,  one-half  of  which  is  devoted  to  pas- 
ture and  the  other  half  to  hay  and  forage  production. 
Eight  years  has  been  allowed  as  the  period  of  usefulness 
of  a  cow. 

244 


VALUING   DAIRY   STOCK 


245 


Three  cows  have  been  selected  whose  annual  butter  fat 
production  is  200,  300  and  400  pounds  respectively.  The 
receipts,  expenditures  and  net  profits  from  the  three  dif- 
ferent producers,  Cow  I,  Cow  II  and  Cow  III,  are  shown 
as  follows : 


Cow 

Cow 

I. 

II. 

200 

300 

$40.00 

$100.00 

54-00 

81.00 

3-00 

8.00 

14.00 

21.60 

20.00 

22.50 

300 

3-00 

$94.00 

$136.10 

$40.00 

$50.00 

20.00 

20.00 

5-00 

5.00 

5-00 

5.00 

1. 00 

1. 00 

2.00 

5.00 

4.62 

12.12 

.70 

1. 00 

1.60 

4.00 

2.50 

2.50 

$82.42 

$105.62 

$11.58 

$30.48 

Cow 
III. 


Annual  butter   fat  production    (lbs.)  .  . 
]\Iarket  value  placed  upon  cow, 

Annual  Receipts — 

Value  of  butter  fat  at  27c  per  lb 

Value  of  calf   

Value  of  skim-milk  at  30c  per  100  lbs. 

Value  of  manure  

One-eighth  final  value  of  cow  for  beef 

Totals    

Annual  Expenditures — 

Feed   

Labor,  feeding  and  milking 

Interest  on  barn,  silo,  milk  house  and 
equipment  valued  at  $100  at  5% 

Insurance  and  depreciation  of  build- 
ings and  equipment  at  5% 

Medical  attention 

Interest  on  value  of  cow  at  5% 

Depreciation  of  cow  at  i2j/^% 

Taxes  on  buildings  and  cow  at  ^%.  . 

Risk^  at  4%   

Service  fee 

Totals 

Annual  net  profit 


400 
$200.00 


108.00 

20.00 

28.80 

25.00 

3.00 

$184.80 


$00.00 
20,00 

5.00 

5.00 
1. 00 
10.00 
24.62 
1.50 
8.00 
2.50 

^137-62 

$47.18 


EXPLANATION  OF  ABOVE)  FIGURES. 

Price  of  Butter  Fat.    Prevailing  prices  of  butter  and 
cheese  have  been  such  as  to  yield  farmers  having  their 


246  DAIRY   FARMING 

milk  made  into  these  products,  an  average  price  for  the 
year  of  2y  cents  per  pound  of  butter  fat. 

Value  of  Calf.  A  calf  from  a  cow  producing  only  200 
pounds  of  butter  fat  a  year  must  be  valued  at  beef  prices, 
w^hich  amounts  to  about  $3.00  at  birth.  When  the  produc- 
tion reaches  300  pounds  of  butter  fat  and  up,  the  value 
of  the  calf  rapidly  increases,  as  indicated  in  the  tables. 
The  price  placed  upon  the  calves  from  the  larger  pro- 
ducers it  is  believed,  is  a  fair  average  market  value.  Their 
actual  value  is  considerably  greater  than  this. 

Value  of  Skim=MiIk.  For  the  purpose  of  this  calcu- 
lation, the  amount  of  skim-milk  credited  to  each  cow  is 
based  upon  a  4%  fat  content  of  the  milk  and  represents 
the  total  milk  minus  the  butter  fat  it  contains.  While  rat- 
ing the  value  of  skim-milk  at  30  cents  per  100  pounds 
may  be  considered  too  high  by  some,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  skim-milk  has  a  fertilizing  value  which  alone 
amounts  to  at  least  10  cents  per  100  pounds,  and  fully 
three-fourths  of  this  is  recovered  in  the  manure.  For 
poultry,  young  calves,  and  young  pigs,  the  combined  feed- 
ing and  fertilizing  value  of  skim-milk  is  higher  than  30 
cents,  especially  when  fed  in  a  small  quantity. 

Value  of  Manure.  The  manure  from  cows  considered 
in  the  preceding  table  is  valued  according  to  its  content 
of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  which  according 
to  their  present  commercial  ratings  are  worth  19,  5,  and 
5  cents  per  pound  respectively.  The  fertilizing  ingredi- 
ents vary  with  the  kind  and  amount  of  feed  supplied,  and 
this  again  varies  according  to  the  productive  capacity  of 
cows  and,  to  some  extent,  the  section  of  the  country  in 
which  the  cows  are  fed.    Largely  because  of  these  condi- 


VALUING   DAIRY   STOCK  247 

tions,  the  values  here  obtained  are  intended  to  be  used 
as  general  averages  only. 

In  fixing  the  value  of  the  manure  from  cows  of  different 
productive  capacities,  $15  is  allowed  as  the  value  of  the 
manure  from  the  feed  required  for  maintenance  and  for 
the  development  of  the  foetus.  In  this  connection  it 
should  be  remembered  that  the  one  and  one-half  acres  of 
land  allotted  per  cow  are  intended  to  supply  all  of  the 
roughage  needed,  and  this  should  contain  nutrients  suffi- 
cient for  maintenance  requirements.  On  one-half  of  this 
land  there  is  grown,  say,  one  ton  of  red  clover  hay  and 
three  tons  of  corn  silage,  which  contain  fertilizing  ingre- 
dients to  the  value  of  $13.62.  If  one-half  of  this  amount 
is  allowed  as  the  value  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients  con- 
tained in  the  pasture  from  the  other  half  of  the  land,  the 
total  value  of  the  fertilizing  constituents  contained  in  the 
feed  required  for  maintenance  is  $20.00.  Some  of  the  fer- 
tilizing constituents  enter  into  the  foetus,  but  it  is  safe 
to -say  that  three-fourths  of  them,  or  $15  worth,  pass  into 
the  manure.  This  maintenance  feed,  and  its  value  as  a 
fertilizer,  is  quite  constant  for  cows  of  diiterent  pro- 
ductive capacities.  Additional  manurial  value  is,  therefore, 
obtained  from  the  amount  of  concentrated  feeds  supplied 
for  milk  production.  According  to  European  and  Ameri- 
can figures,  this  amount  is  approximately  800  pounds  for 
each  2,500  pounds  of  4%  milk,  or  for  each  100  pounds  of 
butter  fat,  produced. 

The  manurial  value  of  each  pound  of  the  common  con- 
centrates varies  from  three-eighths  cent  for  corn  to  about 
one  and  one-fourth  cents  for  cottonseed  meal  and  linseed 
meal,  with  intervening  values  of  three-fourths  cent  for 
wheat  bran,  dried  brewers  grains  and  gluten  feed,  and 


248  DAIRY   FARMING 

about  one  cent  for  gluten  meal.  From  these  values  it  is 
safe  to  assume  an  average  of  five-eighths  cent  per  pound 
which  gives  the  800  pounds  of  concentrates  a  manurial 
value  of  $5.00.  Since  milk  has  a  manurial  value  of  about 
10  cents  per  100  pounds,  the  manurial  value  of  the  2,500 
pounds  of  milk  is  $2.50,  which  leaves  $2.50  as  the  value 
of  manurial  constituents  that  actually  enter  into  the 
manure  for  each  2,500  pounds  of  milk,  or  each  100 
pounds  of  butter  fat,  produced.  For  each  100  pounds  of 
butter  fat  produced,  therefore,  $2.50  is  added  to  $15 
which  is  the  estimated  value  of  the  manure  from  feed 
required  for  maintenance. 

The  value  of  the  manure  from  cows  of  dififerent  pro- 
ductive capacities,  as  obtained  in  the  above  calculation,  is 
based  upon  the  assumption  that  all  of  the  manure  is  saved. 
Unfortunately,  however,  many  dairymen  allow  one-half  or 
more  of  it  to  go  to  waste,  but  such  carelessness  on  the 
part  of  dairymen  should  not  be  charged  against  the  cow. 

AA'hile  the  value  of  the  manure  has  been  based  solely 
upon  its  content  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash, 
manure  has  values  outside  of  these  ingredients.  Its  me- 
chanical efifect  upon  the  soil  through  the  humus  it  sup- 
plies, as  well  as  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  hosts  of 
bacteria  it  contains,  should  not  be  underrated. 

Value  of  Cow  for  Beef.  The  final  value  of  a  cow  to 
the  butcher  may  be  placed  at  $24.  Since  the  cow  may  be 
milked  on  an  average  eight  years,  one-eighth  of  the  $24, 
or  $3,  should  be  credited  to  her  annual  receipts. 

Cost  of  Feed.  On  arriving  at  the  cost  of  feed,  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  one  and  one-half  acres  of  land  is 
allotted  to  each  cow.  This  land,  valued  at  $80  per  acre, 
will  undoiibte(11\-  furnish  enough  pasture  and  other  rough 


VALUING   DAIRY   STOCK 


249 


feeds  to  meet  the  usual  maintenance  requirements.  In 
determining  the  cost  of  the  forage  grown  on  this  land, 
$6.60  is  charged  as  the  interest  and  taxes  on  the  value  of 
the  land,  $3.40  as  the  cost  of  fencing,  and  $10  as  the  cost 
of  the  labor  and  seed  required  to  raise  the  roughage  on 
three-fourths  acre  of  land.  This  makes  a  total  of  $20, 
the  cost  of  maintenance. 

As  stated  above,  approximately  800  pounds  of  grain  or 
its  equivalent,  is  required  to  produce  2,500  pounds  of 
milk  testing  4  per  cent  butter  fat.  This  grain  has  an 
average  market  value  of  about  $10.  To  the  $20,  the  cost 
of  maintenance,  must  therefore  be  added  $10  for  each 
2,500  pounds  of  milk,  or  for  each  100  pounds  of  butter 
fat,  produced. 

Net  Profits.-  The  market  value  placed  upon  the  cows 
is  assumed  to  be  the  average  price  that  one  is  obliged  to 
pay  when  purchasing  them.  Where  the  cows  are  valued 
according  to  the  actual  cost  of  raising  them,  the  net  profits 
would  be  considerably  higher  than  those  shown  in  the 
preceding  table,  especially  from  the  higher  producers,  as 
witness  the  following  table  in  which  the  ^'net  profits  when 
the  cow  is  raised,"  are  based  upon  the  cost  of  the  cow 
as  determined  under  'Valuing  calves,"  page  250. 


Annual  Butter  Fat  Production Pounds 


Net  Profit  when  Cow  is  Bought. . . 

(From  Table,  Page  245) 

Net  Profit  when  Cow  is  Raised  . . . 


200 
511.58 
11.58 


$30.48 
42.38 


400 


$47-i8 
77.98 


The  higher  net  profits  from  cows  raised  upon  the  farm 
are  due  to  their  lower  cost  to  the  dairymen,  reducing  tlie 
following  expenses  based  upon  the  cost  of  the  cow ;  risk, 
taxes,  interest  and  depreciation. 


250 


DAIRY   FARMING 


VALUING  CALVES. 

As  a  rule,  calves  from  high-class  cows  are  sold  at  prices 
considerably  below  their  actual  value.  This  is  so  because 
few  dairymen  appreciate  the  full  value  of  calves  from 
high  producers.  Not  until  such  calves  have  grown  into 
young  cows  is  it  possible  to  realize  anywhere  near  their 
full  market  value,  and  hence  the  wisdom  of  selling  young 
milch  cows  instead  of  calves. 

In  the  receipts  from  cows  of  different  productive 
capacities  shown  on  page  245,  the  values  assigned  to  the 
calves  from  the  higher  producers  are  low  as  compared 
with  the  market  price  of  cows  of  similar  productive 
capacities.  This  is  best  shown  by  first  calculating  the 
approximate  cost  of  raising  calves  from  cows  of  differ- 
ent productive  capacities,  up  to  the  time  of  dropping  their 
first  calf,  namely,  two  years  old,  as  follows : 


Value  of  calf  at  birth 

Interest  at  5% 

Risk  at  4% 

Interest,    taxes,    insurance    and    de 

preciation  of  barn , 

Cost  of  feed   

Cost  of  labor  

Registration  fee   

Service   fee    

Taxes  on  calf   

Medical   attention    

Total  cost   

Value  of  manure , 

Net  cost  at  two  years  old 


From  200- 

From  300- 

pound  Cow 

pound  Cow. 

$3.00 

$8.00 

$0.30 

$0.80 

•24 

.64 

1.50 

1.50 

40.00 

40.00 

10.00 

10.00 

2.00 

2.00 

2.50 

2.50 

.20 

.20 

.20 

.20 

From  400- 
pound  Cow. 

$20.00 


$2.00 
1.60 

1.50 

40.00 

10.00 

2.00 

2.50 

.20 

.20 


$56.94 
20.00 


$57.84 
20.00 


$60 . 00 
20.00 


$36.94 


$37-84 


$40.00 


VALUING   DAIRY   STOCK 


251 


This  table  shows  that  the  cost  of  raising  an  ordinary 
two-year-old  heifer  may  be  taken  on  an  average  to  be 
^^y  and  that  this  cost  is  not  materially  increased  for  high- 
class  heifers. 

The  following  table  shows  that  the  market  value  as- 
signed to  calves  from  the  higher  producing  cows  is  low 
in  comparison  with  the  market  value  of  the  cows  them- 
selves : 


Offspring  from 

2  00-lb, 

cow. 

300-lb. 
cow. 

400-lb. 
cow. 

Market  value  of  calf  at  birth 

Cost  of  raising  calf  up  to  two  years 
old 

$3.00 

36.94 

$8.00  1    $20.00 
37.84     $40.00 

Total  cost  of  two-year-old  heifer 

Market  value  two-year-old  heifer  . .  . 

$39.94 

40.00 

$45.84 

100.00 

$60.00 
200.00 

Increased    net    profit    from  selling 
heifer  instead  of  calf  

$0.06 

$54.16 

$140.00 

The  table  shows  that  it  is  unquestionably  more  profit- 
able to  keep  heifer  calves  until  two  years  old  than  to  sell 
them  as  calves. 


VALUING   BULLS. 

In  estimating  the  relative  value  of  bulls  capable  of  pro- 
ducing cows  yielding  annually  200,  300  and  400  pounds 
of  butter  fat  respectively,  it  is  assumed  that  each  bull  will 
produce  fifteen  heifer  calves  and  fifteen  bull  calves  an- 
nually. The  relative  value  of  the  heifers  from  the  differ- 
ent bulls,  is  based  upon  the  relative  net  profits  obtained 
from  the  cows  as  determined  under  ''Valuing  Cows," 
page  244.   The  bull  calves  from  the  different  bulls  are 


252  DAIRY   FARMING 

given  values  corresponding  to  those  given  the  calves  in 
the  calculation  just  referred  to. 

Since  cows  producing  only  200  pounds  of  butter  fat  a 
year  are  maintained  at  only  a  small  profit,  bulls  capable 
of  producing  such  cows  will  not  be  considered  here.  By 
referring  to  the  figures  showing  the  net  profits  from  cows 
of  dififerent  productive  capacities  it  will  be  found  that  cows 
yielding  400  pounds  of  butter  fat  a  year  will  produce  an- 
nually $16.70  more  net  profit  than  those  yielding  300 
pounds  of  butter  fat.  The  immediate  increased  value  of 
the  fifteen  heifer  calves  from  the  400-pound  bull  will, 
therefore,  amount  to  $16.70X15,  or  $250.50. 

Since  these  heifers  will  produce  for  a  period  of  eight 
years,  the  real  annual  increased  value  represented  by  the 
fifteen  heifer  calves  from  the  better  bull  will  amount  to 
$250.50X8  or  $2,000.00.  Adding  to  this  $180  as  the  in- 
creased value  of  the  fifteen  bull  calves,  we  have  a  total 
of  $2,184  which  represents  the  total  annual  increased  value 
of  the  offspring  from  the  400-pound  bull  over  that  of  the 
300-pound  one.  Allowing  six  years  as  the  period  of  use- 
fulness of  bulls,  we  get  a  grand  total  of  $13,104  in  favor 
of  the  400-pound  bull  during  his  six-year  period  of  use- 
fulness. 

If  we  value  the  300-pound  bull  at  forty  dollars  and  the 
400-pound  bull  at  $150,  it  will  be  necessary  to  deduct  from 
the  above  the  difference  in  the  interest,  taxes,  risk  and 
depreciation  of  the  two  bulls.  These  items,  if  figured  the 
same  as  for  cows,  will  amount  to  $172.68  for  six  years, 
leaving  a  net  profit  of  $13,031.32  in  favor  of  the  400- 
pound  bull  during  his  period  of  usefulness. 

If  we  value  heifer  calves  according  to  the  net  profits 
obtained  from  cows  when  the  latter  are  raised  upon  the 
farm,  the  differences  found  above  will  be  considerably 
greater. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
i,e:gume;s  (alfalfa  and  clovers). 

One  of  the  greatest  factors  in  successful  dairying  at 
^  the  present  time  is  the  growing  of  an  ample  supply  of 
leguminous  crops,  such  as  alfalfa  and  clovers.  There  are 
several  reasons  for  this:  (i)  legumes  improve  the  soil 
by  adding  to  its  store  of  nitrogen;  (2)  legumes  are  rich 
in  protein  and  can,  therefore,  take  the  place,  to  a  great 
extent,  of  high  priced  commercial  feeds  rich  in  protein. 

The  bacteria  that  live  upon  the  roots  of  alfalfa  and 
clovers  have  the  power  of  taking  the  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  putting  it  into  the  soil  in  a  form  in  which  it  be- 
comes available  for  plant  growth.  Nitrogen  when  pur- 
chased in  the  form  of  commercial  fertilizers,  has  a  value 
of  about  twenty  cents  per  pound.  The  dairyman,  who 
grows  a  sufficient  quantity  of  clover  and  alfalfa  gets  the 
nitrogen  absolutely  free  and  in  sufficient  quantity  not  only 
to  maintain  the  supply  of  nitrogen  already  in  the  soil, 
but  by  feeding  the  clover  and  alfalfa  to  stock  the  nitrogen 
content  of  the  soil  can  be  materially  increased. 

With  the  increasing  cost  of  commercial  feeds  rich  in 
protein,  it  manifestly  is  a  matter  of  economy  for  the  dairy 
farmer  to  raise  crops  upon  his  farm  which  can  take  the 
place  of  expensive  commercial  feeds.  There  is  no  home 
grown  feed  which  can  take  the  place  of  grain  or  concen- 
trated commercial  feeds  to  so  great  an  extent  as  alfalfa. 
This  will  be  readily  understood  when  it  is  known  that 

253 


254  DAIRY   FARMIXG 

practical  feeding  trials  have  shown  that  good  alfalfa  hay 
has,  pound  for  pound,  the  same  value  for  milk  produc- 
tion as  wheat  bran.  It  is  generally  known  that  red  clover 
and  other  kinds  of  clover  are  rich  in  protein,  but  alfalfa 
is  still  richer  in  protein. 

Where  conditions  are  favorable  for  growing  alfalfa, 
there  is  perhaps  no  general  farm  crop  that  yields  so  great 
returns  from  an  acre  of  land  as  alfalfa,  especially  when 
considering  its  favorable  efifect  upon  the  soil.  In  favored 
localities  alfalfa  can  be  cut  four  times  during  each  sea- 
son, yielding  from  four  to  five  tons  per  acre. 

The  roots  of  alfalfa  penetrate  the  soil  to  great  depths 
and  for  this  reason,  when  once  established,  alfalfa  will 
flourish  during  dry  seasons  when  ordinary  crops  fail. 
Moreover,  the  deep  root  system  of  alfalfa  enables  it  to 
obtain  plant  food  from  such  soil  depths  as  are  entirely 
beyond  the  reach  of  ordinary  farm  plants. 

Alfalfa  is  a  plant  highly  relished  by  all  classes  of  live 
stock,  though  it  cannot  be  as  successfully  grazed,  perhaps, 
as  red  clover,  at  least  not  until  it  has  passed  through  the 
second  season;  but,  unlike  red  clover,  alfalfa  will  con- 
tinue to  yield  good  crops  of  hay  many  years  without  re- 
planting. It  is  well  to  remember  that  alfalfa  does  not 
thrive  everywhere.  It  requires  a  well  drained  soil  rich 
in  lime  and  containing  the  right  kind  of  bacteria.  In 
limestone  regions  where  sweet  clover  flourishes,  alfalfa 
probably^  grows  at  its  best.  This  plant  is  so  valuable  to 
dairymen  that  none  can  afiford  not  to  try  to  grow  it. 

LEGUME   HAY  AND   CORN    SILAGE. 

Where  a  liberal  allowance  of  rich  legume  hay  is  fed 
in  conjunction  with  corn  silage,  little  grain  or  concen- 


LEGUMES  255 

trates  is  required,  except  for  heavy  producers.  Silage 
helps  to  balance  the  legume  ration  and  supplies  the  suc- 
culence which  the  legume  hay  lacks.  The  two  feeds, 
therefore,  nicely  supplement  each  other,  not  only  so  far 
as  succulence  is  concerned,  but  also  with  respect  to  pro- 
tein and  carbohydrates. 

For  economical  milk  production  it  may  be  stated  with- 
out fear  of  contradiction  that  there  is  no  combination  of 
winter  feeds  equal  to  legume  hay  and  corn  silage,  sup- 
plemented with  grain  or  concentrates  according  the  yield 
of  milk.  It  is  economy  also  to  feed  silage  and  legume 
hay  during  periods  when  pastures  are  short.  Especially 
important  is  it  to  have  silage  for  summer  feeding,  a 
matter  which  is  recognized  now-a-days  by  leading  dairy- 
men everywhere. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


Tlit;    DAIRY    HOl^SE. 


Location.  In  selecting  a  site  for  a  dairy  house,  con- 
venience and  sanitation  should  be  given,  first  considera- 
tion. A  well  drained  spot,  free  from  rubbish  and  bad 
odors,  and  within  reasonable  distance  from  the  barn 
should  be  selected.  An  abundance  of  good,  pure  water 
must  be  available. 

Floor  Plans  Designed  by  the  Author.  Dairymen  who 
sell  milk  and  cream  occasionally  have  a  surplus  of  these 
products  on  their  hands,  which  is  usually  made  into  butter. 
Floor  plans  for  dairy  houses  must  therefore  provide  for 
small  buttermaking  outfits  in  addition  to  all  the  necessary 
apparatus  for  the  handling  of  milk  and  cream. 

The  floor  plan  shown  in  Fig.  72  is  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  small  dairymen.  Figs.  73  and  76  illustrate 
plans  which  will  answer  the  needs  of  dairymen  having 
from  twenty  to  fifty  cows.  The  first  two  plans  provide 
for  retail  milk;  the  last  provides  for  farm  buttermaking. 
There  is  no  question  that  refrigerating  machinery  can  be 
employed  very  advantageously  in  a  great  percentage  of 
the  larger  dairies. 

Details  of  Construction.  The  foundation  for  the 
walls  may  be  constructed  of  stone,  brick  or  concrete.  It 
should  rest  upon  firm,  solid  ground  below  the  frost  line, 
and  the  top  must  be  at  least  one  foot  above  ground. 

In  building  the  walls,  place  the  studs  two  feet  apart 

256 


DAIRY   HOUSE 


257 


Extreme    length,    i6    feet. 
Extreme  width,  12  feet. 


01 

I 

H 

n« 

;d 

C/l 

r 

2 

N 

X 

2 

0 

a 

o\ 

*) 

<jy 

I 

-^ 

z 
5? 

z 
0 

z/ 

^ 

(/> 

> 

z 

CO 

z 

;? 

I 

\ 

1 

A 


J    Bu 


ICE.    Box 


TTER 


Worker 


Printing 

AlMO 
DOTTLIM© 

Tabue 


Fig.  72  -Floor  Plan  of  Dairy  House  for  Retail  Milk. 

and  tack  building  paper  on  both  sides.  Weather 
board  the  outside  and  finish  the  inside  as  follows : 
Board  up  preferably  with  tongued  and  grooved 
lumber,   and  cover  the  boards  with  two  thicknesses  of 


258 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Fig.  73.— Floor  Plan  of  Dairy  House  for  Retail  Milk  Trade,  Suitable  for  Fifty 
Cows.    18'x2-i'. 


roofing  paper.  Next  put  on  furring  strips,  one  foot  apart, 
and  to  these  fasten  wire  lathing.  If  the  lathing  is  pro- 
vided with  one-inch  steel  ribs  the  furring  strips  are  not 


DAIRY  HOUSE 


259 


needed.  Next  apply  one  and  one-half  inches  of  cement 
plaster  consisting  of  one  part  cement,  three  parts  clean, 
coarse  sand,  and  one  part  slacked  lime  paste.     Press  the 


Fig,  74.— Milk  House  for  Cream  Patrons. 

concrete  partly  through  the  wire  lathing.  Finish  with  one 
part  cement  and  one  part  sand  and  trowel  off  as  smoothly 
as  possible.  This  construction  provides  one  three-fourths 
inch  and  one  four-inch  dead  air  spaces. 


260 


DAIRY   FARMING 


Fig.  76— Floor  Plan  of  Dairy  House  for  Farm  Buttermaking. 


DAIRY   HOUSE 


261 


Construct  a  four-inch  concrete  floor  upon  a  well  tamped 
foundation  consisting  of  gravel,  cobble  stones  and  cinders. 


TEST  TABLE 

(stove)      5  X 10           '^ 

HOT       \                            / 
WATER     \                        / 

(tankJ 

1 

/ 

WATER 
TANK 

"7  V   1  A 

/  A  lU 

5- 

MILK 
COOLER 

y^ 

— 

\                            1 

1                            1 

Fig.  75.— Milk  House  Whole  Milk  Patrons. 

These  materials  afford  good  drainage  and  thus  prevent  the 
cold  and  dampness  usually  associated  with  concrete  floors. 
In   preparing   the   concrete    for    the   floor  use   one   part 


262  DAIRY   FARMING 

cement,  two  parts  clean,  coarse  sand  and  four  parts 
gravel  or  crushed  stone.  Finish  with  one  part  cement  and 
two  parts  sand. 

All  parts  of  the  floor  should  slope  toward  the  drain  in 
the  center.  Round  out  the  corners  and  edges  of  the  floor 
with  concrete  to  make  them  more  easily  cleanable. 

The  ceiling  should  be  about  twelve  feet  high  and  built 
of  the  best  ceiling  lumber.    Keep  the  ceiling  well  painted. 

Enough  windows  must  be  provided  to  afford  ample 
light  and  to  admit  sunshine  to  all  parts  of  the  building. 

Provide  ventilation  in  the  milk  and  wash  rooms  by 
running  tight  ventilating  shafts  from  the  ceiling  through 
the  top  of  the  roof. 

Sewerage.-  Effective  sewerage  must  be  provided  at 
the  time  the  floor  is  laid.  A  bell  trap  should  be  placed 
in  the  center  of  each  room  and  carefully  connected  with 
the  sewer.  Conduct  the  sewage  far  enough  away  to 
keep  its  odors  a  safe  distance  from  the  dairy  house. 

Screening.  Where  proper  sanitation  is  expected  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  guard  against  flies,  and  this  can 
easily  be  done  by  screening  all  doors  and  windows.  Flies 
are  a  prolific  source  of  milk  contamination  and  must 
therefore  be   rigidly   excluded    from   the   dairy. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

•  WASHING  Ax\D  STERILIZING  MILK  VESSELS. 

Wash  Sinks.  A  matter  of  importance  in  washing 
milk  vessels  is  to  have  the  right  kind  of  sinks,  three  of 
which  are  needed  for  the  most  satisfactorv  work:     One 


Fig.  7: 


-Wash  Sinks 


for  rinsing  before  washing,  one  for  washing  and  one  for 
final  rinsing. 

For  convenience  the   wash    sink   should   be   thirty -six 


263 


264 


DAIRY  FARMING 


inches  long,  twelve  inches  deep,  and  sixteen  inches  wide. 
The  bottom  should  be  round  and  two  feet  from  the  floor. 
When  closer  to  the  floor  than  this  too  much  stooping  is 
required. 


TTTTH        ^ 

Fig.  79.— Milk  Bottle  Brush. 
Fig.  78.— A  Good  Cleaning  Brush. 

Galvanized  iron  furnishes  one  of  the  most  suitable  ma- 
terials for  the  construction  of  wash  sinks.  They  should 
be  provided  with  steam  (or  hot  water)  and  cold  water 
pipes  as  shown  in  Fig.  '^y. 

Method  of  Washing.  All  vessels  should  be  thor- 
oughly rinsed  in 
warm  water  to  re- 
move small  residues 
of  milk  and  cream. 
The  rinsing  is  fol- 
lowed by  washing 
with  moderately  hot 
water  to  which  a 
handful  of  some 
cleaning  powder  has 
been  added.  The 
washing  should  be 
done  with  brushes 
rather  than  cloths  be- 
cause the  bristles  en- 
ter into  crevices  which 
a  cloth  could  not  possibly  reach, 
in  clean  water. 

A  bottle  washer,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  8o,  saves  much 


Fig.  80.— Bottle  Washer. 

Finally  rinse  the  vessels 


WASHING  AND  STERILIZING  265 

labor  and  does  very  efficient  work.     The  motive  power 
may  be  either  steam  or  water. 

Sterilizing.  Vessels  that  have  been  washed  in  the  man- 
ner described  above  may  look  perfectly  clean,  but  may 
still  be  far  from  being  free  from  bacteria.  These  can  be 
destroyed  only  by  exposing  the-  vessels  to  the  boiling 
temperature  for  some  time. 


Fig-.  81.-  Cheap  Arrangement  for  Securing  Hot  Water. 

The  simplest  method  of  sterilizing  is  to  place  the  vessels 
in  boiling  water  for  five  minutes.  This  method  com- 
mends itself  especially  to  small  dairymen  who  have  no 
steam. 

Where  no  steam  is  available,  the  best  means  of  pro- 
curmg  hot  water  is  the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  8i. 

The  hot  water  tank  is  that  commonly  used  in  residences 
for  heating  water  for  the  bath  tub  and  can  be  obtained 


266 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Fig.  82.— sterilizing  Truck  and  Front  of  Brick  Sterilizer. 

from   plumbers    for   about  $7.00.     Any   stove   in   which 
iron  coils  can  be  heated  will  answer  as  a  heater. 

The  best  method  of  sterilizing  is  to  place  the  vessels 


WASHING  AND  STERILIZING 


267 


in  a  steam  chamber  of  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  a 
pressure  of  ten  or  more  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  These 
steriHzers  are  usually  constructed  of  concrete  or  brick  and 


Fig.  83.  — Cross-Sectiou  of  Concrete  Sterilizer. 

arc  provided  with  a  heavy  iron  door  which  is  large  enough 

to  admit  a  truck  bearing  the  pails,  cans,  bottles,  etc.   Other 

sterilizers  of  this  type  are  constructed  of  galvanized  iron. 

The  principal  drawback  to  some  of  these  sterilizers  is 


268 


DAIRY   FARMING 


their  high  cost,  which  renders  their  use  by  small  dairy 
men  almost  prohibitive. 

Cheap  Sterilizers.  A  cross  section  through  a  cheap 
concrete  sterilizer  is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  It  is  essentially 
a  rectangular  concrete  tank  with  a  wooden  cover  which 
is  lined  with  zinc.  The  sides  and  bottom  are  five  inches 
thick  and  are  built  of  concrete,  which  is  made  up  of  one 
part  cement,  two  parts  s?nd,  and  two  parts  coarse  gravel. 
A  thin  coat,  consisting  ol  one  part  cement  and  two  parts 
sand,  is  used  as  an  inside  finish. 

Fig.  84  shows  a  common  galvanized  iron  sterilizer 
which  answers  the  purpose  for  small  dairymen. 


Pig.  84.— A  Cheap  Sterilizer. 


CHAPTER  XXXVL 

KEEPING  ACCOUNTS. 

Various  methods  are  followed  in  keeping  accounts  with 
patrons,  but  nearly  all  of  them  involve  the  use  of  tickets, 
route  book,  and  some  form  of  ledger.  The  method  here 
described  is  recommended  because  of  its  simplicity. 

Tickets.  Most  customers  prefer  to  settle  their  milk 
and  cream  accounts  daily.  This  they  do  by  purchasing  a 
quantity  of  tickets  from  the  milkman  and  handing  them 
out  every  time  milk  or  cream  is  purchased. 

The  tickets  should  be  used  but  once.  Where  they  are 
repeatedly  used  they  become  dirty  and  a  real  source  of 
danger.  Passing  from  one  household  to  another  they 
are  ''likely  to  become  contaminated  with  disease  germs 
and  thus'become  the  means  of  disseminating  disease. 

The  coupon  ticket  presented  on  the  next  page  is  one  of 
the  most  satisfactory  in  use  at  the  present  time.  The 
portion  of  the  ticket  above  the  perforations  is  retained  by 
the  milkman.  If  the  ticket  is  paid  for  at  the  time  of  pur- 
chase, this  must  be  indicated  on  the  stub  retained  by  the 
dairyman  as  well  as  on  the  customer's  ticket. 

Coupon  tickets  are  also  used  for  cream  and  buttermilk. 
Tickets  for  different  products  should  have  different 
colors. 

Tickets  are  not  absolutely  necessary ;  indeed,  many  cus- 
tomers prefer  to  do  without  them.    Where  no  tickets  are 


269 


270  DAIRY  FARMING 


To  TICKETS  $1.00.  MILK.  L^.J,0~t}l 


MILK. 

M.    <2  .    J?:<^>??— 

To  SPRING   VALLEY   DAIRY,  Dr. 

J.  L.  JONES.  Prop.,  Middleton,  N.  Y. 
Received  Payment .  y^  .    /\^y 

D.,.  JO^-e. .  ^ ,»^ 


-          SPRING  VALLEY   DAIRY.  o    |    ^  SPRING  VAIJLEY  DAIRY.  ^ 

I   ONE  OT-  MILK  2  ;  I  ONE  QT.  MILK  ^ 

i               MIDDLEION.  N.  Y.  ^    |    o  MIDDLETON.  N.  Y.  ^ 

^         SPRING  VaClEY  DAIRY.  o    J  ^^  SPRING  VALLEY  DAIRY.  o 

^  ^ONE  OT.  MILK  2  1 1  ONE  of  •  MILK  | 

o               MIDDLETON.  N.  Y.  ^    fO  MIDDLETDN.  N.  Y.          ^*^ 

•^         SPRING  VaLlEY  dairy.  o    ;    ^  SPRING  VALLEY  DAIRY.  o 

^   ONE  Olr.  MILK  ^  ;  !  ONE  QT.  MILK  2 

§               MIDDLEfoN.  N.  Y.  ^1®  MIDDLETON,  N.  Y.  r* 

'J ''spring  VaIlEY  DAIRY.  o    I    ^  SPRING  VALLEY  DAIRY.  o 

^   ONE  O^T.  MILK  I  i  ^  ONE  of  •  MILK  | 

o              MIDDLEpN.  N    Y  ^1®  MIDDLETON.  N.  Y.  r" 

SPRING  VaIlEY  DAIRY.  o    }    ^  SPRING  VALLEY  DAIRY.  o 


vaIl 
^   ONE  OT.  MILK   I  ;  I   ONE  OT-  MILK   | 

O  MIDDLETON.  N.  Y.  ^   i    o  MIOOLETt)N.  N.  Y.  * 


Coupou  Ticket. 


KEEPING  ACCOUNTS 


21\ 


used,  an  account  is  rendered  at  the  end  of  the  month 
similar  to  that  rendered  by  the  grocer. 

Route  Book.-  It  is  evident  that  if  customers  were 
always  supplied  with  tickets  and  regularly  paid  for  each 
delivery  of  milk  or  cream,  no  further  record  would 
be  necessary.  But  customers  will  run  out  of  tickets  oc- 
casionally as  well  as  forget  to  regularly  hand  them  out, 
hence  it  is  necessary  for  drivers  to  carry  with  them  a 
record  or  route  book  in  which  each  transaction  is  recorded 
at  the  time  it  is  made.  A  form  suitable  for  this  purpose 
is  shown  below. 


/2ycCa/)'yv<^^>^,  d-  ^ 

yC(yyL^4^d^n^^,(l.  ^    \ 

i 

i 

a 

< 

MILK 

CREAM 

B  M 

BOTTLES. 

I 

< 

MILK. 

CREAM. 

B.  M 

BOTTLES.  1 

\ 

1 

\ 

' 

i 

1 

a 

1 

1 

t 

8 

! 

\ 

i 

Q 

I 

> 

t 

• 

LJ 

^ 

_ 

, 





. — . 

__ 

Form  of  Route  Book. 


The  route  book  consists  of  loose  leaves,  upon  which 
the  names  of  customers  are  arranged  alphabetically.  The 
leaves  are  renewed  each  month,  the  old  one  being  placed 
on  file  for  future  reference.  The  letters  b.  m.  stand  for 
buttermilk. 

Ledger.  As  a  rule  all  accounts  are  settled  monthly. 
The  ledger  form  shown  below  serves  satisfactorily  as  a 
permanent  monthly  record. 

On  the  debit  side  are  recorded  the  sales  and  the  total 
value  of  the  tickets  purchased.     On  the  credit  side  are 


272 


DAIRY  FARMING 


recorded  all  the  receipts  for  the  same  period.    The  balance 
represents  the  difference  between  the  debits  and  credits. 


Dr. 

^!^if^^  ^yyvC^ 

Cr. 

DATE 

1908. 

TICKETS. 

\ 

DATE 

1908 

X 

TICKETS. 

I 

i 

1 

it 

a 

t 

I 

g 

Jan   1-31 

s:<K> 

3o 

JO 

/o 

sx> 

Jan   1-31 

i>.oc  srs 

/o 

i 

¥. 

Bal.  Jan  31 

%00 

s- 

0 

3. 

V 

Bal  Fbb.  1 

SL.m 

S 

0 

2. 

¥ 

- 

1 

Fbb  1-29 

■»>^ 

'  *> 

Form  of  Ledger. 


Monthly  Statement.  At  the  end  of  each  month  a 
statement  should  be  rendered  to  customers  showing  their 
indebtedness.  A  form  Hke  that  herewith  shown  answers 
the  purpose  satisfactorlh\ 


SPRIXUDALE  SANITARY    DAIRY, 


Ma. 


j^yi^<^ 


REIDSVILLE,  N.  H, 


ToSPRINGDALE  SANITARY  DAIRY, ob 

.1    C.  BOONE.  Proprietor 


J3^tz.£t!^^<s^     y^t/-./ 


st> 


^M'.i-2'i 


1^0  ^rvo**'^  >^^J2^     (Q      ^ 


L30 


//     '^^XJC*.     (S/ULa.-^^  <0    2^ 


Xo 


^  ^^-^.*/i;tL.  ^^^^^^v^Z^  <?  s~ 


^      t 


)4>' 


OO 


Ko,  <^  ..Ayr^^^yAjOZo^^^^JL^  Mt£^  f 


/^ 


KEEPING  ACCOUNTS  273 

Order  Book  for  Supplies.  For  convenience  as  well 
as  for  permanent  record,  all  orders  should  be  made  in 
duplicate  m  a  book  specially  made  for  the  purpose  The 
leaves  m  the  order  book  are  alternately  marked  '^original" 
and  -duplicate,"  the"  duplicate  being  made  at  the  same 
time  as  the  original  by  using  carbon  paper  between  the 
two.    A  suitable  form  of  order  blank  is  shown  below. 

Original  Springdale  Sanitary  Dairy. 

J.  C.  Boone,  Prop. 
Or^^i  No Reidville,  N,  H 190.  . 


To 
Dear  Sir 


Please  deliver  by the  following: 


Invoice  and  ship  to 

Springdale  Sanitary  Dairy, 

J.  C.  Boone,  Prop.,  Reidville,  N.  H. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

WATER    AND    ICE    SUPPLY. 
WATER  SUPPEY 

Importance  of  Pure  Water.  A  great  deal  of  disease 
in  farm  homes  is  directly  traceable  to  infected  water. 
Typhoid  fever  especially  is  so  frequently  caused  by  pol- 
luted well  water  that  physicians  at  once  look  to  this  as 
the  probable  cause  wherever  this  disease  is  found  to  ex- 
ist. 

\\'here  wells  infected  with  disease  germs  happen  to  ex- 
ist on  dairy  farms  that  supply  milk  to  neighboring  cities, 
disease  is  not  limited  to  the  dairyman's  own  family,  but 
may  be  spread  along  the  entire  milk  route.  Many  typhoid 
fever  epidemics  have  been  positively  traced  to  milk  which 
has  become  infected  through  water  containing  the  disease 
germs.  Nowhere  is  pure  water  so  important,  therefore, 
as  upon  dairy  farms. 

The  disease  germs  usually  find  their  way  into  the  milk 
through  milk  vessels  which  have  been  washed  with  in- 
fected water.  The  use  of  such  water  for  washing  cows' 
udders  previous  to  milking  may  also  be  the  means  of  in- 
fecting the  milk  supply. 

Location  of  Well.  The  most  satisfactory  location  for 
the  well  is  at  the  dairy  house  where  the  coldest  water  is 
required  and  where  it  will  be  most  convenient.  Here  the 
water  for  both  the  dairy,  the  home,  and  the  stock  can  be 
pumped  with  the  dairy  engine.     Further,  the  well,  like 

274 


WATER    AND    ICE    SUPPLY 


275 


the  dairy  house,  should  stand  on  sHghtly  elevated  ground 
so  as  to  insure  drainage  away  from  it. 

Construction  of  Well.  In  a  properly  constructed 
well,  no  water  should  enter  it  except  near  the  bottom. 
This  compels  the  water  to  pass  through  a  thickness  of 
earth  sufficient  to  purify  it  where  the  wells  are  of  a 
reasonable  depth. 

Where  there  is  no  rock  or  hard  clay  and  where  the 


Fig.  85.— Soil  strata.      (From  Harrington's  "Practical  Hygiene.") 

water  can  be  had  at  a  reasonable  depth,  the  driven  well, 
commonly  knov/n  as  the  Abyssinian  tube  well,  is  the 
cheapest  and  one  of  the  safest.  This  well  is  made  by 
driving  into  the  ground  a  water-tight  iron  tube,  the  lower 
end  of  which  is  pointed  and  perforated. 

In  case  rocks  and  hard  clay  must  be  penetrated,  or  great 
depth  must  be  reached  to  secure  water,  the  bored  or 
drilled  well,  piped  from  top  to  bottom  with  water-tight 
iron  pipes,  will  be  found  most  satisfactory. 


276 


DAIRY  FARMING 


Water  from  the  upper  pervious  stratum  should  be 
avoided  wherever  possible,  even  with  wells  of  the  kind 
just  described.  Especially  is  this  necessary  where  the 
wells  are  shallow.  The  purest  water  is  obtained  by  sink- 
ing the  well  through  an  impervious  stratum,  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  85. 

The  most  dangerous  well  is  the  common  dug  well  with 
pervious  walls  and  so  located  as  to  permit  seepage  into 
it  from  outhouses,  barnyards  and  cesspools.  Wells  of 
this  type  are  altogether  too  common  on  dairy  farms. 


Pig.  86.— Sources    of    Well    Water  Contamination.      (From    Bui.   143  Kan. 
Exp.    Sta.) 

All  wells,  whatever  their  construction,  must  be  provided 
with  water-tight  metallic  or  concrete  covers  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  impurities  into  the  shaft. 

ICE  SUPPI^Y. 


Necessity  of  Ice.     Where  there  is  no  equipment  for 


WATER    AND    ICE    SUPPLY  277 

mechanical  refrigeration,  ice  is  indispensible  in  furnish- 
ing the  best  quahty  of  milk  and  cream.  A  low  enough 
temperature  cannot  be  secured  with  water  alone,  neither 
can  the  cooling  be  accomplished  as  quickly  as  is  desirable 
for  best  results.  Furthermore,  a  satisfactory  cold  storage 
cannot  be  had  without  the  use  of  ice. 

Cooling  Power  of  Ice.  A  great  deal  of  cooling  can 
be  done  with  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  ice.  This 
is  due  to  the  latent  or  "hidden"  cold  in  ice.  Thus  to 
convert  one  pound  of  ice  at  32°  F.  into  water  at  the  same 
temperature  requires  142  units  of  heat,  or,  in  other  words, 
enough  cold  is  given  out  to  reduce  the  temperature  of 
142  pounds  of  water  one  degree  Fahr. 

Construction  of  Ice  House.  To  keep  ice  satisfactorily 
three  things  are  necessary,  ( i )  good  drainage  at  the  bot- 
tom, (2)  good  insulation,  and  (3)  abundant  ventilation 
at  the  top. 

Good  drainage  and  insulation  at  the  bottom  can  be  se- 
sured  by  laying  an  eight-inch  foundation  of  stones  and 
gravel  and  on  top  of  this  six  inches  of  cinders,  the  whole 
being  underlaid  with  drain  tile.  One  foot  of  sawdust 
should  be  packed  upon  the  cinders  and  the  ice  laid  directly 
upon  the  sawdust. 

Satisfactory  walls  are  secured  by  using  matched  boards 
on  the  outside  of  the  studs  and  common  rough  boards 
on  the  inside,  leaving  the  space  between  the  studs  empty. 
The  ice  should  be  separated  from  the  walls  by  one  foot  of 
sawdust. 

Where  no  solid  foundation  walls  are  provided,  earth 
must  be  banked  around  the  ice  house  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  air  along  the  base. 

The  space  between  the  sawdust  covering  on  top  of  the 
ice  and  the  roof  should  be  left  clear.     Openings  in  the 


278  DAIRY  FARMING 

gable  ends  as  well  as  one  or  two  ventilating-  shafts  pro- 
jecting through  the  roof  should  be  provided  to  insure  a 
free  circulation  of  air  under  the  roof.  This  will  not  only 
remove  the  hot  air  which  naturally  gathers  beneath  the 
roof,  but  will  aid  in  drying  the  sawdust. 

The  ice  must  be  packed  solidly,  using  no  sawdust 
except  at  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  ice  house  and  on 
top  of  the  ice  when  the  filling  is  completed.  At  least  one 
foot  of  saw^dust  must  be  packed  on  top  of  the  ice. 

Size  of  Ice  House.  The  size  of  the  ice  house  \\\\\ 
depend,  of  course,  upon  the  amount  of  ice  to  be  used. 
For  a  herd  of  25  cows,  in  the  North,  an  ice  house  10 
feet  square  by  14  feet  high  will  usually  answer.  These 
dimensions  provide  storage  for  22  tons  of  ice,  allowing 
one-foot  space  all  around  the  ice  for  sawdust.  In  the 
South  about  50%  more  ice  is  required  than  in  the  North. 

In  calculating  the  amount  of  storage  space  needed  for 
ice,  it  is  necessary  to  know  that  one  cubic  foot  of  ice  at  32° 
F.  weighs  57.5  pounds. 

As  a  matter  of  convenience  in  filling  and  emptying  the 
ice  house,  doors  should  be  provided  in  sections  from  the 
sill  to  the  gable  at  one  end  of  the  building. 

General  Uses  of  Ice.  Aside  from  the  use  of  ice  in 
cooling  milk  and  cream,  it  can  be  employed  to  good  ad- 
vantage in  several  other  ways.  Its  value  in  the  house- 
hold, in  preserving  meats,  vegetables,  and  fruits  cannot 
be  overestimated.  And  what  is  so  refreshing  as  cold 
drinks  and  frozen  desserts  during  the  summer  months! 
Ice  is  also  frequently  necessary  in  case  of  sickness. 

Cost  of  Making  Ice.  Where  ice  can  be  obtained  with- 
in a  reasonable  distance,  the  cost  of  cutting,  hauling,  and 
packing  should  not  exceed  $1.50  per  ton. 

Source  of  Ice.     Always  select  the  cleanest  ice  available. 


WATER    AND    ICE    SUPPLY  279 

Where  the  source  of  ice  is  at  too  great  a  distance  from 
the  dairy,  an  artificial  pond  should  be  made  upon  ground 
with  a  reasonably  impervious  subsoil  and  with  a  natural 
concave  formation.  If  such  a  piece  of  ground  is  flooded 
with  water  during  the  coldest  weather,  an  ample  supply 
of  ice  will  be  available  in  a  very  short  time. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

DAIRY   BY-PRODUCTS 
COMPOSITION    OF   BY-PRODUCTS. 


Skim-milk . 
Buttermilk 
Whey 


Water. 
Per  Cent. 


90.50 

90-39 
93.10 


Fat. 
Pe:  Cent. 


0. 10 

0.50 
0.30 


Milk  Sugar, 
Per  Cent. 


4-95 
4.06 

5-15 


Casein  and 
Albumen, 
Per  Cent. 


3-57 
3.60 

0.80 


Ash. 
Per  Cent. 


0.78 

0-75 
0.65 


Skim=Milk  as  a  Feed.  This  is  a  question  in  which 
dairymen  should  take  greater  interest  because,  as  a 
rule,  the  feeding  value  of  skim-milk  is  underestimated. 
Feeding  trials  show  that  five  pounds  of  skim-milk  ;ire 
equal  to  about  one  pound  of  grain  (corn,  barley,  oats). 
They  also  show  that  on  an  average  four  pounds  of  grain 
will  produce  one  pound  of  gain  with  young  pigs,  while 
five  pounds  will  produce  the  same  gain  with  pigs  from 
six  to  twelve  months  old.  On  this  basis  twenty  pounds 
of  skim-milk  are  required  to  produce  one  pound  of  gain 
with  young  pigs  and  twenty-five  pounds  with  older  pigs. 
With  pork  at  eight  cents  a  pound,  one  hundred  pounds  of 
skim-milk  will  produce  40  cents  worth  of  pork  with  young 
pigs  and  2>^  cents  worth  with  older  ones. 

The  amount  of  skim-milk  required  to  produce  a  pound 
of  veal  is  shown  by  feeding  trials  to  range  on  an  average 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds.     Taking  the  latter  figure 


280 


DAIRY  BY-PRODUCTS 


281 


and  valuing  veal  at  7  cents  a  pound,  skim-milk  is  worth 
35  cents  per  100  pounds  for  veal  production. 

The  highest  returns  from  the  feeding  of  skim-milk 
are  secured  when  fed  to  poultry.  Careful  experimental 
tests  show  that  as  high  as  75  cents  per  100  pounds  may 
be  realized  for  skim-milk  when  fed  to  poultry 

Skini=milk  as  a  Fertilizer.  Many  who  are  selling 
the  skim-milk  off  the  farm  do  not  sufficiently  appreciate 
the  fertilizing  value  of  this  material.  At  the  lowest  esti- 
mate skim-milk  has  a  fertilizing  value  of  ten  cents  per 
hundred  pounds. 

Buttermilk  as  a  Feed.  Buttermilk  has  essentially 
the  same  composition  as  skim-milk.  It  contains  a  little 
more  fat,  but  less  sugar,  part  of  which  has  been  changed 
into  lactic  acid.  For  pig  feeding,  except  in  the  case 
of  very  young  pigs,  it  has  practically  the  same  feeding 
value  as  skim-milk,  as  shown  by  numerous  feeding  ex- 
periments. It  is  also  a  good  poultry  feed.  It  can  not  be 
recommended,  however,  for  calf  feeding,  though  it  has 
been  used  with  fair  success  in  some  instances. 

Whey  as  a  Feed.  Whey  when  properly  cared  for  has 
practically  one-half  the  feeding  value  of  skim-milk. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 


MACHINE   MILKING. 


Recent  results  secured  by  experiment  stations  and  nu- 
merous large  dairymen  indicate  that  the  milking  machine 
may  become  an  important  factor  in  future  dairying.  The 
testimonials  from  these  sources  show  that  machines  milk 
quite  as  satisfactorily  as  average  hand  milkers ;  and  since 
one  attendant  can  milk  four  to  six  cows  at  the  same  time, 
there  is  a  material  saving  in  labor,  besides  making  labor 
more  agreeable.  Many,  however,  have  pronounced  ma- 
chine milking  unsatisfactory. 

Principle  of  Operation.  Milking  by  machine  is  ac- 
complished by  suction  similar  to  that  produced  by  a  suck- 
ing calf.  The  suction 
is  intermittent  and  is 
created  by  producing 
a  partial  vacuum  in  a 
system  of  pipes  to 
which  the  milking 
machines  are  attached 
during  milking. 

Apparatus.  T  h  c 
necessary  apparatus 
for  machine  milking 
consists  of  a  milker, 
which    includes    a   tin 

pail,   teat    cups.   etc. ;   a    vacuum    pump ;     some   form   of 
j)!>\vt-r;  a  vacmini  rt-servoir;  two  vacuum  gauge.s ;  a  safety 

282 


Fig.  87.— Milkiuy  Machiur  iu  opcratiou. 


MILKING   MACHINES  283 

valve;  and  about  150  feet  of  gas  pipes.     Each  machine 
milks  two  cows. 

Cost  of  Apparatus.  The  following  may  be  considered 
an  approximate  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  milking  outfit 
for  about  30  cows:  Two  milkers,  $180;  vacuum  pump, 
$50;  vacuum  reservoir,  including  two  vacuum  gauges 
and  a  safety  valve,  $35;  a  two  horse  power  gasoline 
engine,  $85 ;  and  pipes  and  piping,  $50 ;  The  cost  of 
pipes  depends  largely  upon  the  distance  of  the  power 
from  the  barn.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  the  power  in 
the  barn  or  even  near  it.     ( See  Chapter  on  Farm  Power. ) 

Operating  Machine.  When  ready  to  begin  milking 
start  the  vacuum  pump  and  place  a  milker  between  two 
cows  and  open  valve  on  main  vacuum  pipe.  Bend  over 
teat  cups  and  attach  one  by  one  to  one  cow  and  then 
proceed  to  do  the  same  with  the  other.  Similarly  attach 
one  or  two  more  milkers,  so  as  to  keep  four  to  six  cows 
milking  at  the  same  time.  A  short  glass  tube  at  the  ma- 
chine shows  when  the  milking  is  completed. 

'  The  mouthpieces  on  the  teat  cups  must  be  of  a  size 
to  correspond  with  the  size  of  the  teats.  They  must  be 
neither  too  small  nor  too  large.  It  is  important,  also, 
that  the  piping  system  be  kept  air  tight  and  free  from 
moisture. 

Details  concerning  the  installation  and  operation  of 
the  machines  may  be  had  for  the  asking  by  writing  to 
the  manufacturers. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

PASTEURIZATION   OF   MILK   AND   CREAM. 

The  process  known  as  pasteurization  derives  its  name 
from  the  eminent  French  scientist  Pasteur.  It  consists 
in  heating  and  cooHng  milk  and  cream  in  a  manner  which 
will  destroy  the  bulk  of  bacteria  in  them,  but  which  will 
leave  their  chemical  and  physical  properties  unchanged 
as  far  as  possible. 

Advantages  of  Pasteurization.  The  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  pasteurization  vary  with  the  conditions 
under  which  the  milk  is  produced  and  the  efficiency  with 
which  the  work  is  conducted.  If  the  milk  comes  from 
dairies  where  disease  and  uncleanliness  prevail,  pasteur- 
ization will  prolong  the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk  and 
also  materially  lessen  the  danger  from  disease  germs. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  healthfulness  and  cleanliness  re- 
ceive the  exacting  attention  which  prevails  on  certified 
dairy  farms,  nothing  can  be  gained  by  subjecting  milk 
to  the  pasteurizating  process. 

Disadvantages  of  Pasteurization.  The  principal  dis- 
advantages are  as  follows:  (i)  the  cost  of  pasteurizing 
apparatus;  (2)  the  cost  of  pasteurizing;  (3)  the  tendency 
to  promote  uncleanliness  on  the  part  of  the  producer;  (4) 
the  tendency  to  reduce  the  cream  line  on  the  milk; 
(5)  lessening  of  the  whipping  property  of  the  cream; 
and  (6)  the  tendency  to  impart  a  ''cooked"  flavor  to  the 
milk  and  cream. 

Methods  of  Pasteurization.     Two  general  methods 

284 


PASTEURIZATION 


285 


are  now  in  vogue :  (  i )  the  discontinuous  method  by  which 
every  particle  of  milk  and  cream  is  heated  from  ten  to 
thirty  minutes  according  as  the  temperature  is  high  or 
low;  (2)  the  continuous  method  by  which  milk  and  cream 
are  permitted  to  pass  in  a  constant  stream  through  the 
pasteurizer  and  are  subjected  on  an  average  less  than 
one  minute  to  the  pasteurizmg  temperature. 

In  general  the  most  efficient  pasteurization  is  obtained 
with    the    discontinuous    method. 

Pasteurizing  Temperatures.  Obviously  where  milk 
is  heated  only  a  minute  or  less,  a  higher  temperature 
must  be  employed  than  where  it  is  heated  for  a  much 
longer  period  of  time.  With  the  continuous  method 
the  temperature  varies  from  160°  to  180°  F.  With 
the  discontinuous  method  the  temperature  varies 
from  140°  to  155°  F.  Exposing  milk  or  cream  to 
a  temperature  of  145°  F.  for  twenty  minutes  results 
in  very  satisfactory  pasteurization.  The  temperature  and 
time  of  exposure  should  always  be  such  as  to  insure  the 
destruction  of  the  tubercle  bacillus,  which  is  one  of  the 
most  resistant  of  the  disease  bacteria  most  commonly 
found  in  milk. 

Quick  Cooling.  In  pasteurizing  the  heating  must  be 
quickly  followed  by  thorough  cooling.  This  is  an  ex- 
tremely important  part  of  the  pasteurizing  process.  It  is 
desirable  that  the  temperature  be  reduced  at  once  to  45° 
F.  or  below. 

Viscogin.  Thorough  pasteurization  reduces  the  vis- 
cosity or  whipping  property  of  cream.  To  restore  the 
original  viscosity  a  solution  of  sucrate  of  lime  is  added, 
which  is  known  as  viscogin.  This  solution  is  made  by 
adding  an  excess  of  slaked  lime  to  three  parts  of  sugar 
dissolved  in  five  parts   of  water.     The  mixture  is  al- 


28G  DAIRY  FARMING 

lowed  to  stand  twenty-four  hours,  after  which  the  clear 
liquid  at  the  top  is  poured  from  the  sediment  and  pre- 
served in  a  stoppered  bottle. 

Add  one  part  viscogin  to  about  150  parts  of  cream. 
Never  add  so  much  as  to  render  the  cream  alkaline. 

While  viscogin  is  entirely  harmless,  it  is  nevertheless 
an  adulterant  and  cream  treated  with  it  must  be  so 
labeled. 

Inefficient  Pasteurization.  Milk  that  has  been  un- 
derheated  is  more  dangerous  than  that  which  has  not 
been  heated  at  all.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  inadequate 
heat  in  pasteurizing  may  destroy  the  lactic  acid  bacteria 
(which  are  easily  killed)  and  by  so  doing  actually  better 
the  conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  more  resistant  and 
obnoxious  kinds.  Lactic  acid  organ'sms  are  antagonistic 
to  other  classes  of  bacteria  and  are  therefore  a  real  safe- 
guard to  milk.  This  makes  it  plain  that  unless  milk  is 
pasteurized  at  a  temperature  which  will  destroy  the 
pathogenic  and  non-acid  bacteria  as  well  as  the  acid  bac- 
teria, it  is  far  better  not  to  heat  it  at  all. 

Pasteurization  should  be  condemned  where  its  only  ob- 
ject is  to  keep  milk  sweet.  Its  real  object  should  be  to 
destroy  all  actively  growing  bacteria  and  especially  all 
disease-producing  organisms  such  as  the  tubercle  bacillus 
which  is  among  the  most  resistant. 

Pasteurizing  in  the  Home.  If  milk  must  be  pas- 
teurized to  render  it  safe,  there  is  no  better  place  to  do 
this  than  in  the  home  where  it  is  to  be  consumed.  The 
pasteurizing  is  very  easily  and  satisfactorily  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  a  small  double  milk  or  rice  boiler  which 
can  be  procured  for  about  one  dollar  from  hardware  deal- 
ers everywhere.  It  is  essential  to  stir  the  milk  while 
heating  and  to  use  a  reliable  thermometer. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 


CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS. 


Milk  and  cream  yield  butter  in  proportion  to  their 
butter  fat  content.  That  is  the  reason  why  practically 
all  milk  and  cream  made  into  butter  are  now  bought  by 
the  "Babcock  test,"  that  is,  on  the  "butter  fat  basis."  In 
discussing  the  method  of  paying  for  milk  and  cream, 
therefore,  only  the  ''butter  fat  basis"  will  be  considered. 

The  periodical  payments  made  for  milk  and  cream  at 
creameries  are  known  as  creamery  dividends.  These  pay- 
ments or  dividends  are  sometimes  made  daily,  as  in  the 
case  of  some  gathered  cream  plants;  more  often,  how- 
ever, they  are  made  weekly,  semi-monthly  and  even 
monthly. 

The  different  steps  in  the  calculation  of  dividends  at 
creameries  are  as  follows: 

First,  find  the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat  received  from 
all  the  patrons.  This  is  done  by  finding  the  total  amount 
of  butter  fat  furnished  by  each  patron  separately  and 
adding  together  the  totals  so  found.  In  finding  each 
patron's  total  butter  fat,  every  delivery  of  cream  is  mul- 
tiplied by  its  test  and  the  results  of  the  different  deliv- 
eries added  together. 

Second,  find  the  net  money  from  the  sale  of  butter  by 
multiplying  each  sale  of  butter  by  its  price  and  deducting 
from  the  amount  thus  found  the  cost  of  making  the  butter. 

Third,  find  the  price  per  pound  of  butter  fat  by  divid- 

287 


288  DAIRY  FARMING 

ing  the  total  net  money  by  the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat 
deHvered  by  all  the  patrons. 

Fourth,  find  each  patron's  share  of  the  money  by  mul- 
tiplying the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat  delivered  by  him 
by  the  price  per  pound  of  butter  fat. 

To  make  the  above  steps  perfectly  clear,  let  us  cal- 
culate a  weekly  dividend  at  a  creamery  where  only  cream 
is  received  and  where  A,  B  and  C  are  the  patrons : 

Illustrating  the  First  Step.  The  total  butter  fat  de- 
livered by  A,  B  and  C  is  as  follows : 

Pounds  Pounds  of 

of  cream.  Test.      butter  fat. 

May  2 42     X  35.4  =    14.87 

^     J   May  4 50     X  30.1  =     15.05 

May  6  48     X  30.5  =     14.64 

May  7 20     X  36.6  =      7.32 

Total    51-88 

May  2 23  X  40.5  =  932 

B,     J    May  4 29  X  30.0  =  8.00 

May  6 25  X  36.4  =  9.10 

May  7  13  X  35.0  =  4.55 


Total    30.97 

May  2  64  X  33.0  =  21.12 

C      ^    May  4 69  X  31. 1  =  21.46 

May  6 58  X  37.5  =  21.75 

May  7  30  X  34.4  =  10.32 


I 


Total    74-65 

The  total  butter  fat  delivered  by  A,  B  and  C  equals  51.88  -h 
30.97  +  74.63  equals  157-48  pounds. 

Illustrating  the   Second   Step.     The   net  money  is 
found  as  follows: 


CALCULATING  DIVIDENDS 


289 


Pounds  of    Price  per 

butter  sold,    pound.  Amount. 

May  3  86     X     26>^c    =  $22.79 

May  7 103     X     26c        =      26.78 

Total  lbs.  butter 189        Total  money  $49.57 

At  33^  cents  a  pound  for  making-,  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture will  be  3>^  X  189,  or  $6.62.  Deducting  this 
amount  from  the  total  money,  there  remains  $42.95, 
which  is  the  total  net  money  due  the  patrons. 

Illustrating  the  Third  Step.  The  price  per  pound  of 
butter  fat  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  total  net  money 
found  in  step  two  by  the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat  found 
in  step  one.  Thus:  $42.95 -f- 157.48  =  27.27  cents  = 
price  per  pound  of  butter  fat. 

Illustrating  the  Fourth  Step.  Find  the  money  due 
each  patron  by  multiplying  the  butter  fat  furnished  by 
him  as  determined  in  step  one  by  the  price  per  pound 
of  .butter  fat  as  determined  in  step  three.    Thus : 

51.88  X  $.2727  =  $14.15  =  A's  money. 
30.97  X  .2727  =  8.44  =  B's  money. 
74-65     X       .2727    =      20.36    =    C's  money. 

ACTUAL   OVERRUN. 

In  a  well  conducted  creamery  the  total  pounds  of  but- 
ter made  is  always  greater  than  the  total  pounds  of 
butter  fat  received ;  the  difference  is  called  the  overrun. 
Thus,  if  during  a  certain  time  a  creamery  makes  2,400 
pounds  of  butter  from  2,000  pounds  of  butter  fat,  the' 
overrun  equals  2,400  less  2,000,  or  400  pounds.  The 
per  cent  of  overrun  is  found  by  dividing  the  number  of 


290  DAIR Y  PA RMING 

pounds  of  overrun  by  the  total  pounds  of  butter  fat  re- 
ceived and  multiplying  the  quotient  by  lOO.  Putting  this 
in  the  form  of  a  formula,  we  have: 

Per  cent    )  pounds  of  overrun 


1= 


^  r X     100 

Uverrun     J       ^^^^j  pounds  of  butter  fat 

Where   2,000   pounds   of   butter   fat   will    make   2,400 

pounds  of  butter,  the  overrun  will  therefore  equal : 

400  _ 

X   100,  or  20%. 


2000 

A  mistake  not  uncommonly  made  in  calculating  the 
per  cent  overrun  is  to  divide  the  pounds  of  overrun  by 
the  total  pounds  of  butter,  instead  of  the  total  pounds  of 
butter  fat. 


APPENDIX. 


Period  of  Gestation.  This  refers  to  the  time  which 
elapses  between  conception  and  calving.  The  average 
period  of  gestation  of  a  cow  is  283  days. 

Frequency  of  Heat.  As  a  rule  non-pregnant  cows 
will  come  in  heat  every  21  days.  The  period  of  heat  lasts 
from  2  to  3  days. 

Metric  System  of  Weights  and  Measures.  This 
system  was  devised  by  the  French  people  and  has  very 
extensive  application  wherever  accuracy  in  weights  and 
measures  is  desired.  Some  of  its  equivalents  in  ordinary 
weights  and  measures  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


•Ordinary  weights  and  measures. 


1  ounce  (av). 

1  quart 

1  pallon 

1  fluid  ounce. , 
1  pound   (av.), 

1  grain 

linch 

1  foot 


Equivalents  in  metric  system. 


28. 35     grams. 

0  9464  liter. 

3.7854  liters. 
29.57     cubic  centimeters  (c.c.) 

0.4536  kilogram.  ^ 

64.8       milligrams. 

2  54     centimeters. 

0.3048  meter. 


ADDRESSES  OF  DAIRY  CATTLE  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATIONS. 


Breed. 


Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein-Frlesian 
Ayrshire 


Secretary. 


J.  J.  Hemingway 

Wm.  H.  Caldwell 
F.  L.  Houghton.. 
C.  M.  Winslow . . . 

291 


Po.«t  office. 


8  W.  17th  St.,  New  York, 

N.  Y. 
Peterboro,  N.  H. 
Brattleboro,  Vt. 
Brandon,  Vt. 


292 


DAIRY   FARMING 


Rations  According  to  Yield  of  Milk.  The  Connec- 
ticut (Storrs)  standard  rations  for  varying  yields  of  milk 
are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE — FEEDING    STANDARDS. 


Live 
weight, 
pounds. 

Daily,  per  1,000  pounds  of  live  weight 

When  giving 
daily. 

Total 
dry  mat- 

Digestible nutrients,  pounds. 

Nutritive 

ter, 
pounds. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates, 

Fat. 

ratio. 

10-20  lbs.  milk. 

700-950 

20  22 

2.0 

10  12 

0.3  0  5 

1:6.0 

20-25     " 

700-950 

21-23 

2  3 

10-12 

0.4  0.6 

1:5.3 

25-30     "        " 

700  950 

21-23 

2.6 

10  12 

0.4-0.6 

1:4.7 

30  35     "        " 

700  950 

22-24 

2.9 

11-13 

0.5-0.7 

1:4.6 

35-40     " 

700  950 

22  24 

3  2 

11-13 

0.5-0.7 

1:4.2 

10-20     " 

950-1100 

22  24 

2.3 

12-14 

0  4-0  6 

1:6.1 

20  25     " 

950  1100 

22  25 

2.6 

12-14 

0  5  0.7 

1:5.5 

25-30     " 

950-1100 

23  25 

2.9 

12  14 

0.5  0.7 

1:5.0 

30-35     "        '• 

950-1100 

24  26 

3  2 

13  15 

0  6-0.8 

1:4  9 

35-40     " 

950-1100 

24  26 

3.5 

13-15 

0.6-0.8 

1:4.4 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Butter.  Butter  is 
judged  commercially  on  the  basis  of  45  points  for  flavor, 
25  for  texture,  15  for  color,  10  for  salt,  and  5  for  package, 
total  100. 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging  Cheese.  Cheese,  as  a 
rule,  is  judged  commercially  on  the  basis  of  45  points  for 
flavor,  30  for  texture,  10  for  salt,  10  for  color,  and  5  for 
appearance,  total  100. 

Milk  Solids.  The  solids  of  milk  include  everything 
but  the  water.  If  a  sample  of  milk  be  kept  at  the  boiling 
temperature  until  all  the  water  is  evaporated,  the  dry, 
solid  residue  that  remains  constitutes  the  solids  of  milk. 
It  is  convenient  to  divide  the  solids  into  two  classes,  one 
including  all  the  fat,  the  other  all  the  solids  which  are  not 
fat.  In  referring,  therefore,  to  the  different  solids  of 
milk,  we  speak  of  the  "fat"  and  the  "solids-not-fat" 
which,  together,  constitute  the  "total  solids." 


APPENDIX 


293 


Relationship  of  Fat  and  SoIids=not=Fat.  In  normal 
milk  a  fairly  definite  relationship  exists  between  the  fat 
and  the  solids-not-fat.  For  example,  milk  rich  in  fat  is 
likewise  rich  in  solids-not-fat.  On  the  other  hand,  milk 
poor  in  fat  is  also  poor  in  solids-not-fat.  Hence  the  jus- 
tice of  paying  for  milk,  delivered  to  cheese  factories,  on 
the  biitterfat  basis.     See  table  on  page  133. 

Composition  of  Cream.  Cream  contains  all  the  con- 
stituents found  in  milk,  though  not  in  the  same  proportion. 
The  fat  may  vary  from  8%  to  68%.  As  the  cream  grows 
richer  in  fat  it  becomes  poorer  in  solids-not-fat.  Rich- 
mond reports  the  following  analysis  of  a  thick  cream : 

Per  cent. 
Water    

Fat 


Sugar 


39-37 

56.09 

2.29 

Proteids icy 

Ash WW         [^s 

Capacity  of  Cylindrical  Siloes.  The  approximate 
capacity  of  cylindrical  siloes  for  well-matured  corn  silage 
is  shown  in  the  following  table: 

TABLE — CAPACITY  OF  CYLINDRICAL  SILOES,  TONS.* 


Depth  of  silo,  feet, 


Inside  diameter  of  silo,  feet. 


26 


15 


63 


82    103 
87    110 


90 

116 

97 

123 

103 

130 

108 

137 

114 

144 

119 

151 

125 

158 

131 

166 

20 


21 


13 
14 
154 
164 
173 
184 
194 
204 
215 
226 
236 
226 I  248 


23 


24 


295 


177 
189 
202 
216 
229 
242 
257 
271 
285 
300 
315 
330 
346 


*Froiu  :\Io(iern  Silage  Methods. 


294  DAIRY  FARMING 

Pasteurization  of  Milk.  Where  no  ice  is  available, 
the  keeping  quality  of  milk  may  be  materially  prolonged 
by  a  process  of  heating  and  cooling  known  as  pasteuriza- 
tion. This  process  consists  in  exposing  milk  to  a  tem- 
perature of  about  150  degrees  F.  for  thirty  minutes,  after 
which  it  is  immediately  cooled  to  the  lowest  temperature 
possible  with  water.  This  treatment  destroys  practically 
all  of  the  bacteria  in  milk  and  thus  not  only  materially  in- 
creases its  keeping  quality,  but  also  renders  it  free  from 
harmful  or  disease-producing  bacteria. 

Definition  of  Technical  Terms.  A  Hst  of  technical 
tenns  not  specially  defined  in  the  text  is  presented  be- 
low: 

Albumexoids. — Substances  rich  in  albumen,  like  the 
white  of  an  ^gg,  which  is  nearly  pure  albumen. 

AxAEROBic. — Living  without  free  oxygen. 

Centrifugal  Force. — That  force  by  which  a  body  mov- 
ing in  a  curve  tends  to  fly  off  from  the  axis  of  motion. 

Chemical  Composition. — This  refers  to  the  elements  or 
substances  of  which  a  body  is  composed. 

Colloidal. — Resembling  glue  or  jelly. 

Concussion. — The  act  of  shaking  or  agitating. 

Cubic  Centimeter  (c.  c). — See  metric  system  p.  203. 

Emulsion. — A  mixture  of  oil  (fat)  and  water  contain- 
ing sugar  or  some  mucilaginous  substance. 

Enzymes. — Unorganized  ferments,  or  ferments  that  do 
not  possess  life. 

Fibrin. — A  substance  which  at  ordinary  temperatures 
forms  a  fine  network  through  milk  which  impedes 
the  rising  of  the  fat  globules. 

Foremilk. — The  first  few  streams  of  milk  drawn  from 
each  teat. 


APPENDIX  295 

Galactase. — An  unorganized  ferment  in  milk  which  di- 
gests casein. 
Mammary  Gland. — The  organ  which  secrets  milk. 
Meniscus. — A  body  curved  like  a  first  quarter  moon. 
Mii.K  Serum. — Milk  free  from  fat.     Thus,  skim-milk  is 

nearly  pure  milk  serum. 
Neutral. — Possessing   neither   acid   nor   alkaline   prop- 
erties. 
Non-conductor. — A  material   which   does   not   conduct 

heat  or  cold,  or  only  so  with  great  difficulty. 
Osmosis. — The    tendency    in    fluids   to    diffuse    or    pass 

through  membranes. 
Rennet  Extract. — The  curdling  and  digesting  principle 

of  calf  stomach. 
Secretion. — The  act  of  separating  or  producing  from  the 

blood  by  the  vital  economy. 
Specific  Gravity. — The  weight  of  one  body  as  compared 

with  an  equal  volume  of  some  other  body  taken  as 

a  standard. 
Spore. — The  resting  or  non-vegetative  stage  of  certain 

kinds  of  bacteria. 
Sterilization. — The  process  of  destroying  all  germ  life 

by  the  application  of  heat  near  212°  F. 
Strippers'  Milk. — The  milk  from  cows  far  advanced  in 

the  period  of  lactation. 
Strippings. — The  last  few  streams  of  milk  drawn  from 

each  teat. 
Suspension. — The  state  of  being  held  mechanically  in  a 

liquid,  like  butter  fat  in  milk. 
Tuberculin. — A  sterile  glycerine  extract  of  the  growth 

products  of  the  tubercule  bacillus. 
Vacuum. — Space  devoid  of  air. 
Vegetatr'E   Bacteria. — Those  bacteria   that  are   in  an 

actively  growing  condition. 


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among  big  dairymen.  They  know  that  no  other  separator  will  give 
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machines  out  against  the  De  Laval,  the  chances  are  a  hundred  to  one 
that  his  choice  will  be  the  De  Laval.  More  De  Laval  machines  are 
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INDEX. 


Page 

Abortion     113 

Acid,    measures 139 

Acid,   test    174 

Afterbirth,    retention    of 116 

Ailments    of   cattle 110 

Air   of  stable 161 

Albumen   of   milk 129 

Alfalfa     253 

Ammonia    fixers     103 

Appendix     287 

Ash    of    milk 129 

Ayrshire    cattle 31 

characteristics    of    32 

Rabcock    test    135 

apparatus    for     137 

method    of   making 140 

method    of    reading 141 

.pointers    on     making 142 

principle    of    185 

sample     for     135 

Rabcock   testers    136 

Racteria,    discussion    of 146 

Rarn,    dairy    86 

Rarn    yard,    clean 157 

Barrenness     119 

Redding    for    cows 162 

Ritter    fermentation    151 

Rloat     110 

Rloody  milk    120 

Rreeding,   purity   of    14 

Rreeding   rack    77 

Ruilding    up    herd    20 

Rull,    selection    of    17 

feeding    of    74 

management    of     74 

pedigree    of    17 

pen      75 


Page 

Rull,  prepotency  of    18 

type    of    18 

valuing    of    251 

Rutter    boxes    199 

cartons    186 

composition    of    186 

marketing    of 186 

salting   of    182 

working   of    183 

Ruttermilk,    feeding   value    281 

Ruttermilk,   skimmilk    233 

Rutterfat     125 

composition    of    126 

method    of   estimating    60 

physical    properties   of    125 

production     11 

testing    for    135 

Ruttermaking      165 

Rutter   prints    184 

Rutter,   working   of    183 

Rutyric    fermentation     150 

Calf,   care  of    85 

prenatal    development    of. .  .  .    82 

rearing     82 

scours     1  J  5 

stanchions      83 

Calves,    feeding   of    83 

selection    of    23 

valuing  of    250 

weaning    of    82 

Carbohydrates     34 

Cattle,    breeds   of   dairy 25 

Certified    milk    236 

Cheese,  amount  of  color  in 187 

amount   of   rennet   in 187 

composition   of   192 

curing     192 


297 


298 


INDEX 


Page 

Cheesemaking,    Cheddar    187 

club     204 

cottage     199 

cream     204 

Neufchatel 202 

soft  and    fancy    199 

Chromogenic    fermentations    ....153 

Churning     180 

Clover     253 

Club  cheese    204 

Cold    storage    205 

Colostrum   milk    130 

Composite    sample   jar    63 

Conformation    of    cows 11 

of  bulls    18 

Cooley  can    166 

Corn    for   silage    52 

when  to  cut   56 

Cottage    cheese     199 

Cow,    dairy,   points   of    12 

Cows  stalls  and  ties    89 

Cows,  buying   24 

clean    157 

drying   off    79 

evolution    of    9 

feeding  of 33 

gestation    period    of 287 

health  of    16 

management    of    73 

milk   organs   of    13 

points    of     12 

selection    of    12 

type    of    11 

valuing     244 

Cream    bottle    195 

Cream,   churnability  of 171 

churning,   temp,   of    172 

composition    of     289 

cooling    205 

frothing    of    171 

marketing  of   217 

pasteurizing     of     284 

reading  test  of 144 

ripening    170 

scales    140 

separators    167 

shipping     224 


Page 

Cream,    standardizing   of    222 

stirring     173 

testing    142 

Creaming,   centrifugal    165 

deep,    cold     106 

dilution,  method  of 166 

efficiency  of    107 

gravity     105 

methods    of     165 

shallow  pan    165 

Curdling  fermentatijn    149 

Dairy  barn    86 

cross-section    of    100 

ground  plan  for    87 

method  of  constructing   ....    88 

ventilation   of    96 

Dairy   by-products    280 

Dairy   calf,    rearing   of 82 

Dairy    cattle    associations 287 

Dairy  herd,  building  up   of 20 

starting    of    22 

Dairy   houses    256 

Dairy   rations    37,   288 

Dairy  temperament    12 

Dairy  type    11 

Dairying,    direct   profits   in 7 

indirect  profits  in    8 

winter     73 

Dehorning    80 

Diseases  of  cattle    110 

Disinfectants     Ill 

Dry  matter,   definition   of    34 

Escutcheon    14 

Ether   extract    34 

Farm  buttermaking    165 

Farrington  acid  test    175 

apparatus  for    175 

method  of  making 176 

Fats   insoluble    127 

soluble     128 

Feed,    estimating   cost    of 66 

Feeding  calves    83 

Feeding  cows   33 

according  to  flow   45 


INDEX 


299 


Page 
Feeding    cows    before    and    after 

calving    42 

frequency   of    41 

practice    of    41 

principles    of    33 

Feeding   silage    43 

Feeding   standards     30 

I'ceding   tables    46 

I'eeds,   composition    of 33 

digestibility    of    35 

palatability  of   35 

succulence  of    35 

Foaming  of  cream    185 

Garget     : 114 

Gasoline    engine    107 

Gassy  fermentation    152 

Gestation,    period    of    287 

Glassware   for  Balxrock  test 136 

Grubs    121 

Guernsey  cattle    27 

characteristics   of 28 

Gutters   for  barn    95 

Hand  separators    167 

Hay  loft    97 

Health  of  cows    16 

Heat,    frequency   of    287 

Heifers,   age   to   breed    78 

Herd  management    73 

Herd  records    60 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle    29 

characteristics  of    30 

Hoven     119 

Ice   cream   making 228 

Ice  house   277 

Ice    supply    276 

Indigestion    116 

Inversion    of   womb    117 

Jersey  cattle   25 

characteristics    of    26 

Judging    butter     288 

Judging  cheese    288 

King    ventilator     95  | 


Page 

Lactic    fermentation    148 

Legumes     253 

Lice,    treatment    for 121 

Mangers    94 

Manure 101 

carrier    104 

fermentation    of     103 

leaching  of    102 

losses   in     102 

Marketing  miliv   and  cream 217 

Markets     213 

Metric   system    287 

Milk  and  its  products    239 

relative  value  of   239 

Milk,    colostrum    130 

bottle    195 

certified    236 

cooling    205 

creaming   of    165 

fever    112 

fermentations    146 

houses     256 

keeping  account  of   269 

marketing  of    217 

organs     13 

pail,   sanitary    159 

pasteurization  of    284 

physical  properties  of 123 

quality  of    132 

record  sheet    62 

records     60 

room,    sanitary    164 

sanitary    155 

scales 61 

secretion     130 

shipping   224 

standardizing     222 

straining   of    160 

Milk  sugar    129 

testing    135 

vessels    158 

wells .    12 

Milkers,   value   of  good 71 

effect   of  change  of 69 

clean     158 


300 


INDEX 


PaRe 

Milking    G8 

clean     70 

fast  vs.    slow    70 

frequency   of    71 

machines     282 

treatment   of   cow   during...    68 
with   dry  hands    loS 

Neufchatel   cheese   making    202 

Nutritive    ratio     39 

Palatability   of    feeds    33 

Pasteurization     284 

Pedigree     15 

Pelvic  region    13 

Power    on   farm    106 

possibilities    for    107 

Prepotency  defined   18 

Principle  of  Babcock  test   135 

Principles  of  feeding   33 

Protein,    definition    of    34 

Purgatives     Ill 

Purity  of  breeding   14 

Quality   of   milk,   variations   in..  132 
Quarantining    110 

Ratio,    nutritive     39 

Ration,    definition   of    38 

Rations,  method  of  calculating..    38 

standard     37 

Ropy    fermentation     152 

Salt   for  stock    44 

Salting  butter    182 

Samplers,    milk    64 

Sampling   milk    64 

Sanitary    milk    155 

Scales,    milk    61 

Secretion    of    milk    130 

Selection    of    cows    11 

Selection    of    sires    17 

Self-sucking    cows 121 


Page 

Shallow    pan    creaming    165 

Skimmilk-buttermilk      233 

Skimmilk,    feeding   value    of 280 

Silos     52 

advantages    of    twin 57 

capacity    of     289 

concrete     55 

concrete   lined    58 

construction    of    54 

cutting  corn    for    50a 

filling  of    59b 

location    of    54 

Michels'   twin    57 

size  of    53 

Slimy    fermentation     152 

Stalls    89 

Stalls,   size   of    94 

Standardizing  milk   and   cream.. 222 

formulas    for    222 

Starters      193 

Sterilizing    vessels     263 

Sterilizers    266,   267,  268 

Stringy    milk    120 

Teat  troubles    120 

Technical  terms,    definition   of. ..290 

Thermometer,    dairy    179 

Test    bottles    138 

Testing     135 

Toxic    fermentation     153 

Tuberculin   test    117 

Tuberculosis     117 


Urine,    saving   of 


101 


Ventilation 
Ventilation, 


of    barn     96 

King  system    95 


Warbles     121 

Washing    vessels     263 

Water   for   stock    44 

Water  heater    265 

Water    supply    274 


ti^^^ 


t-ir- 


